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Abstract
Inflammation is a process that occurs naturally after injury. While acute inflammation is beneficial in the regulation of bone healing, chronic inflammation is detrimental and underlies most musculoskeletal diseases. Tuning inflammation using biomaterials is a strategy increasingly explored to promote tissue repair/regeneration. In particular, the modulation of macrophage phenotype, from pro-inflammatory (M1) to pro-regenerative (M2), has the potential to direct appropriate healing outcomes.
For this doctoral dissertation work, the goal was to use biodegradable biomaterials to bioengineer a microenvironment that could modulate macrophages towards a proreparative phenotype to improve bone healing. Particularly, we hypothesized that the combination between fibrinogen (Fg) and magnesium (Mg) would act synergistically in the modulation of macrophage phenotype and their crosstalk with mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs), under physiological and pro-inflammatory conditions. Fg has been investigated in our group either adsorbed to chitosan or as scaffolds with very encouraging results for bone regeneration. On the other hand, Mg is considered the most promising biodegradable biomaterial to be used in orthopedics due to its mechanical properties similar to human bone and natural presence in bone. However, its degradation rate is fast and hard to control. Thus, the combination of Mg-based materials with polymers has been suggested as an attractive approach for orthopedic implants, to improve biodegradability rate, biocompatibility, angiogenesis and osteogenesis. So, herein, we aimed to: (i) combine Fg with Mg and investigate the synergistic immunomodulatory potential of FgMg biomaterials towards macrophages and MSCs; (ii) develop Mg-incorporated Fg scaffolds and evaluate their capacity to modulate macrophage phenotype and inflammation, in vitro and in vivo;(iii) determine the potential of non-viral transfection to fine-tune biomaterials ability to modulate macrophage polarization.
To accomplish our aims we started by combining Fg scaffolds with Mg discs (multilayer constructs). Then, we investigated the impact of their extracts on macrophage phenotype and paracrine crosstalk with MSCs. Results showed that extracts from FgMg materials impair LPS-IFNy-driven macrophage M1 polarization, resulting in a lower percentage of CD86 positive cells, and reduced secretion of TNF-⍺ and IL-12. Mechanistically, FgMg extracts impaired the LPS-IFNy stimulation of NF-kB p65 activation. Moreover, the secretome from macrophages exposed to FgMg extracts significantly increased the MSCs ALP activity. These findings are reported in chapter II and published in the scientific article Bessa-Gonçalves M et al. (2020), Acta Biomaterialia, 114 (2020) 471–484.
Next, we developed an FgMg combination biomaterial, where increasing concentrations of MgSO4 were incorporated in the structure of Fg 3D scaffolds. Results showed that Fg scaffolds incorporating 10, 25 and 50 mM of MgSO4 presented decreasing porosity with increasing MgSO4 concentration. MgSO4 incorporation increased surface charge, and gradual Mg2+ release could be detected along time. MgSO4 incorporation also increased the loss and storage modulus of Fg, with significant differences for the 10 mM FgMgSO4 scaffolds. When macrophages were cultured on these scaffolds, a significant decrease in cell viability was observed for 25 and 50 mM FgMgSO4scaffolds, either in M0 or M1 conditions.





