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Naval diplomacy-the use of naval power in peacetime to secure influenceby contemporary navies is seen by many as playing a vital and unique role in promoting the international aims of governments.1 The U.S. Navy's Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Michael Mullen, clearly recognizes the diplomatic utility of naval power: "Navies are not only critical, decisive, and enabling in times of war, but they may be even more important in maintaining the peace."2 Naval diplomacy includes what Sir James Cable calls "gunboat diplomacy," which is "the use of threat of limited naval force, otherwise than as an act of war, in order to secure advantage or to avert loss, either in the furtherance of an international dispute or else against foreign nationals within the territory or the jurisdiction of their own state."3
Naval diplomacy allows states to signal national interests in a particular region, and through naval presence, navies can also act as subtle reminders of their states' military might and commitment.4 Naval diplomacy can support allies, influence neutrals, deter potential enemies, protect interests, and uphold international law.5 American naval diplomacy and foreign policy goals were clearly linked in the 1994 strategic concept paper Forward . . . from the Sea: "Naval forces are an indispensable and exceptional instrument of American foreign policy. From conducting routine ship visits to nations and regions that are of special interest, to sustaining larger demonstrations of support to long standing regional security interests. . . . US naval forces underscore US diplomatic initiatives overseas."6 Naval diplomacy, then, is a way in which the United States can use its naval power to achieve desired effects and advance foreign policy goals.
Or so, at least, it is widely assumed. Using American naval diplomacy in the Black Sea during the summer of 2006 as a case study, this article questions the generally accepted view of the diplomatic utility of naval power. It argues that naval diplomacy can be counterproductive: that it can not only fail to produce desired political effects but cause unintended and unforeseen damage. In the Black Sea, the fallout of naval presence may ultimately damage American interests. This article, focusing on the preparations for a joint U.S.-Ukrainian multinational exercise, will illustrate how diplomatic goals of American naval diplomacy were thwarted...