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The purpose of this study was to refine understanding of transformational leadership theory by a specification and test of boundary conditions. Multiple levels of analysis (individual, dyad, and group) were used to identify conceptually and assess empirically the potential bounds on transformational leadership theory. Multi-source data were collected from a sample of 105 salespersons and their 33 sales supervisors, and within and between analysis (WABA) procedures were conducted. Contrary to higher-level (dyad, group) and cross/level assertions in the literature, transformational leadership results were based solely on individual differences. That is, in this sales setting, transformational leadership theory was determined to be an individual-level theory bounded by individuals' (superiors' and subordinates') perceptions and not holding at higher levels of analysis. Implications of the findings for future leadership research and practice are discussed.
Well-formulated theoretical models include not only variables and relationships among the variables, but also the boundaries or domains within which the theory is expected to hold (see Dubin, 1976). Some leadership scholars seem to view transformational/charismatic leadership theory as an unbounded theory (see Bass, 1990). Bass (1985, 1990), Bass and Avolio (1990, 1993), and their associates (see Bass & Avolio, 1994), for example, have discussed the "universality" of transformational leadership theory. Included in these discussions are (a) the relevance of the theory for numerous fields of study and various historical periods and events; (b) the theory's applications to and implications for different levels of analysis and levels of management; (c) the meaning and relevance of the theory for different types of organizations, jobs, and industries; and (d) the common features of the theory that hold across various cultures and national boundaries. One interpretation of these ideas and discussions is that transformational leadership theory is an unbounded theory (also see Yukl, 1989). The purpose of the current study was to use multiple levels of analysis to specify conceptually and test empirically some boundaries on transformational leadership theory as articulated by Bass and his colleagues (e.g., Avolio & Bass, 1988; Bass, 1985, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1990, 1993, 1994; Hater & Bass, 1988; Waldman, Bass, & Yammarino, 1990; Yammarino & Bass, 1990; Yammarino & Dubins, 1994).
Levels of Analysis as Boundary Conditions
Theoretical models comprising variables, relationships, and boundaries permit the specification of propositions, hypotheses, and...