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The factor structure, reliability, and validity of a 49-item scale designed to measure Stockholm Syndrome (also referred to as "traumatic bonding" and "terror bonding"), that is, bonding with an abusive partner, were assessed for college women in heterosexual dating relationships. Factor analysis identified three major factors: Core Stockholm Syndrome, characterized by cognitive distortions and other strategies for coping with abuse; Psychological Damage, marked by depression, low self-esteem, and loss of sense of self; and Love-Dependence, typified by the feeling that one cannot survive without one's partner's love. The scale and factors had excellent internal consistency and good test-retest reliabilities. They correlated negatively with the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale and positively with Horowitz, Wilner, & Alvarez' (1979) Impact of Event Scale, Hyler and Rieder's (1987) Borderline Personality Disorder Scale, Hatfield and Sprecher's (1986) Passionate Love Scale, and Straus' (1979) Verbal Aggression and Violence scales of the Conflict Tactics Scales.
Drawing on the literatures of nine different "hostage" groups,1 Graham developed the Stockholm Syndrome theory to explain certain paradoxical behaviors commonly observed in these groups. These paradoxes include professing "love" for persons who abuse them, defending their abusers even after severe beatings, blaming themselves for the abuse done to them, and denying or minimizing the threatening nature of the abuse.
The psychodynamics of the Stockholm Syndrome (also referred to as "traumatic bonding" [Dutton & Painter, 1981] and "terror bonding" [Barry, 1995]), as described by Graham (1994), involve hostages/victims experiencing a threat to their survival while, if kindness is perceived, developing hope that they will be permitted to live. Under these conditions, and if no other avenue of escape is perceived, the frightened victims deny both their terror and the captor's abuse and bond to the kind side of the captor, who represents their only available source of succor and avenue for escaping abuse. Thus, according to Graham (1994), four necessary precursors of the syndrome are: (a) the victim perceiving a threat to his or her survival; (b) the victim perceiving some kindness, however small, from the abuser/captor; (c) the victim being isolated from others who might offer an alternative perspective from that of the abuser; and (d) the victim perceiving no way to escape except by winning over the abuser. Numerous cognitive and perceptual distortions develop...