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1. Introduction
Geert Hofstede is the author of one of the most influential treatises on national culture (Kirkman et al., 2006), originally published in a short form (Hofstede, 1980), followed by an expanded version (Hofstede, 2001). According to Bond (2002), cross-cultural psychologists were “held in thrall” (p. 73) by Hofstede’s intellectual achievement, whereas Peterson (2003) pointed out that Hofstede’s first book shaped the basic themes, structures, and controversies of the cross-cultural field for over 20 years. Hofstede popularized the nomothetic approach to the study of culture, subsequently employed by other leading researchers (for instance Inglehart and Baker, 2000; House et al., 2004; Schwartz, 1994, 2008, etc.). Their studies have proven the utility of this approach. But how accurate is the product that it yielded in Hofstede’s research? The answer to this question is long overdue. As the issue is complex and requires a lengthy analysis, a single paper cannot provide all answers. Yet, it can outline some general conclusions.
This study starts with an analysis of secondary (published) data. Then, it analyzes primary data from a survey of nearly 53,000 respondents selected probabilistically in 56 countries. The survey was partly designed to check the structure and replicability of Hofstede’s dimensions.
I remind the readers that Hofstede designed his model at the national level of analysis, not at the individual. This means that Hofstede’s model explains patterns that are observable when the agents are whole nations, not individuals. Attempts to transpose Hofstede’s model to the individual level would be what Hofstede (2001) and others call an ecological fallacy. Unfortunately, Brewer and Venaik (2014) and Winzar (2015) found that many authors of articles in leading journals continue to project cultural patterns onto individuals or organizations. Such attempts amount to expecting the laws of classical mechanics to apply at the sub-atomic level, where very different quantum physics laws are in force. Still, if the laws are different at different levels, the logic of the discrepancy needs to be explained. In one instance, discussed further in this paper, this seems to be a problem for Hofstede’s model.
Another caveat is also important. Baumann and Winzar (2017) point out that the extent to which values drive behavior is a function of the circumstances in which individuals find themselves...