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Introduction
Special events are a popular method for local communities to provide recreational opportunities to their members, as well as to attract an influx of visitors and tourist revenues (Dwyer et al., 2005; Kim and Uysal, 2003; Reid, 2007). The purposes of special events vary, ranging from celebrating a unique moment with ceremony and ritual (Goldblatt, 2005), to promoting sport events (Chalip and Leyns, 2002), to providing opportunities for leisure and social interaction beyond everyday experience (Getz, 1997; Nicholson and Pearce, 2001). Previous research (Van Winkle and Woosnam, 2014; Wood, 2005) shows that special events often result in socioeconomic benefits and an increase in positive attitude toward the host community. They carry different meanings, depending upon the particular social, cultural, or corporate objectives to be achieved (Allen et al., 2002). Special events have become a common device in tourism to promote place identity and to reestablish a positive image of the host community (Shone and Parry, 2010).
Andersson and Getz (2008) argue that the extent to which events and festivals can function as sustainable attractions while fulfilling their social and cultural roles at the community level is extremely important. The research (Wood, 2005; Fredline et al., 2003; Reid, 2007) reveals why people attend special events, what is gained from attending the special events, and how the events affect the local community. Although this body of research has mainly focussed on the financial impact of special events (Crompton and McKay, 1994; Dwyer and Forsyth, 2009; Jackson et al., 2005; Jago and Dwyer, 2006), there is a growing recognition of their sociocultural impacts and a developing interest in establishing the importance of these factors (Robertson et al., 2009; Small et al., 2005; Delamere et al., 2001).
Among the few studies that focus on the sociocultural impacts of special events, the stakeholder theory has been widely deployed. Researchers look to members of the community, visitors/participants, event workers/volunteers, local media, and local sponsors, in order to understand the relative success of special events (Getz et al., 2006). In particular, event organizers, often labeled as event managers, are primarily responsible for designing, planning, coordinating, and evaluating events (Goldblatt, 2005). They are employed by a town or a city, designated within the Parks...