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Abstract: In recent years, Bengali Baul-Fakir music has become popular among affluent, educated Bengalis. Increased commercial demand, professional competition among performers, and the availability of inexpensive audio recordings have sparked a marked diversification of individual Baul-Fakirs' musical repertoires. I illustrate this diversity through detailed transcriptions and discuss other recent innovations, including the use of large performance ensembles, the use of "modern" instrumentation, and the blending of melodic elements from East Bengal with rhythmic elements from West Bengal. More broadly, I suggest that the commodification of a spiritual music can serve as a catalyst for musical innovation, and I provide ethnographic evidence suggesting that such innovations need not threaten the efficacy of the music in spiritual settings.
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Introduction
Baul-Fakirs are a group of Bengali musicians and spiritual practitioners known for their rejection of caste, orthodoxy, and religious discrimination.1 In recent years, Baul-Fakir music has become quite popular among affluent educated Bengalis, many of whom view Baul-Fakirs as emblematic of Bengali traditions of communal tolerance, humanist spirituality, artistic excellence, and social critique.2 When Baul-Fakir musicians perform for affluent audiences, they attempt to present musically varied and engaging programs and seek to differentiate themselves from other Baul-Fakir performers in a crowded musical marketplace. I argue that the commercial demand for staged performances, the professional competition among performers, and the availability of inexpensive audio recordings have sparked a marked diversification of individual Baul-Fakirs' musical repertoires in recent decades.3 While the total repertoire of Baul-Fakir music, as it exists across region and guru lineage, has always been diverse, the ability of individual musicians to perform this entire stylistic spectrum, along with other related musical genres, is a recent development. More broadly, I show that the commodification of a spiritual music can serve as a catalyst for musical innovation, as the music is transformed into a presentational art form designed to hold the attention of varied audiences. Furthermore, I demonstrate that the commodification of spiritual music need not entail its disappearance in noncommercial, ritually significant settings.
I begin with a brief discussion of the Baul-Fakir social category, an explanation of the pertinence of a music-centered analysis of Baul-Fakir songs, and a historical overview of Baul-Fakir music. Next, I provide an outline of...