Occupational Sex Segregation and Working Time: Regional Evidence from Germany

Abstract

This paper provides descriptive evidence for declining occupational sex segregation on the German labor market, especially concerning the regional differences between the former East and West Germany. I use segregation measures and long-run social security data for the decade of 1992 to 2004. While segregation has declined over time, it remains higher for the eastern part of Germany. Although this finding is observable for full-time and part-time work, segregation is always lower in part-time employment.

Headnote

Summary: This paper provides descriptive evidence for declining occupational sex segregation on the German labor market, especially concerning the regional differences between the former East and West Germany. I use segregation measures and long-run social security data for the decade of 1992 to 2004. While segregation has declined over time, it remains higher for the eastern part of Germany. Although this finding is observable for full-time and part-time work, segregation is always lower in part-time employment.

Key words: Gender, Segregation, Germany.

JEL: J16, J23.

(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)

In this descriptive paper, I analyze the trends in occupational sex segregation be- tween men and women in Germany. In general, segregation is measured as the ratio of men and women in given occupations. Following the earlier work for Germany by Thomas Hinz and Thomas Schübel (2001), Susanne Falk (2002), and Miriam Beblo, Anja Heinze, and Elke Wolf (2008), I use the regional file of the Institute for Em- ployment Research (IAB) Employment Sample (IABS-R04) to replicate the results for the time span of 1992 to 2004. In this paper, the trends in segregation are pre- sented separately for full- and part-time employment. Because of the specific situa- tion after the unification in 1990, segregation is analyzed for the former East and West Germany.

I present three key results. First, segregation declines over time. Second, se- gregation is still higher for eastern Germany. There is no observable trend in conver- gence between eastern Germany and western Germany. Finally, these results hold for both full-time and part-time employment, while segregation is always lower for those working part-time.

The subsequent paper is structured as follows. In the next section, I present a review of the literature findings. In Section 2, I compare two measures of occupa- tional sex segregation. Section 3 provides a data description of the regional file of the IAB Employment Sample (IABS-R04). In Section 4, the descriptive trends are pre- sented. The paper concludes with a summary and discussion of the findings in Sec- tion 5.

1. Findings in the Literature

In surveys, Richard Anker (1997) and Jo Anne Preston (1999) show that both supply- side and demand-side factors determine occupational sex segregation. The supply- side factors may be based on different decisions regarding human capital accumula- tion and family formation. The demand-side factors may be based on the effects of taste or statistical discrimination. These lead to inequality in wages between men and women. However, there is strong evidence that in industrialized and developing countries, in the long run, segregation declines and female labor participation in- creases. See for example the UK (Martin Watts and Judith Rich 1993), Finland, Norway and Sweden (Helinä Melkas and Anker 1997), Spain (Coral del Río and Olga Alonso-Villar 2010), the USA (Donald Tomaskovic-Devey et al. 2006; Alonso- Villar, Del Río, and Carlos Gradín 2012; Francine D. Blau, Peter Brummund, and Albert Yung-Hsu Liu 2013), Canada (Bradley Brooks, Jennifer Jarman, and Robert M. Blackburn 2003), Australia (Watts 2003), Israel (Shoshana Neuman 1998) and Brazil (Paola Salardie 2012). One exception is Turkey, where Rich and Serap Palaz (2008) show an increase in segregation. Paul A. Swanson (2005) presents cross- sectional results for 29 different countries worldwide.

Hinz and Schübel (2001) use the German Establishment Panel (IAB Betriebs- panel) for the year 1994 for western Germany. They show that occupational sex se- gregation generally exists in Germany. Women are less equally distributed over jobs than men, and women in part-time employment are less segregated than women in full-time employment. Since reunification in 1990, the former two countries still dif- fer in many respects. Falk (2002) uses the waves 1991 to 2000 of the German Mikro- zensus (MZ) to show the differences in segregation between eastern and western Germany. She shows that, immediately after reunification, women in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR) were strongly clustered in administrative and service jobs, and especially in the public sector. On the contrary, men were less clus- tered in typically male jobs, such as technicians and engineers, because of the politi- cal will of a high female proportion. This statistical artifact persists and women in eastern Germany are less equally distributed over jobs than women in western Ger- many. However, Annemette Sørense and Heike Trappe (1995) and Rachel A. Rosenfeld, Trappe, and Janet C. Gornick (2004) discuss the idea that the leading so- cialist party in the former GDR did not fulfill the political will for equality in all parts of social life.

Beblo, Heinze, and Wolf (2008) show three stylized facts for German firms. Firms with a high proportion of female workers, a high proportion of part-time work- ers or a high proportion of highly skilled workers are always less segregated than other firms. The authors use linked employer-employee data (LIAB) for the years 1996, 2000 and 2005. In the second step, they decompose the decline in segregation over time into gender and job effects. On one hand, the ratio between males and fe- males in a given job may change. On the other hand, the job structure, the number of workers in a given job, may change as well. The authors describe both effects as be- ing able to drive a change in occupational segregation. While in western Germany both effects lower segregation in the same direction, the very slight decline in segre- gation for eastern Germany is driven by an increase in the gender structure and a de- crease in the job structure. Analyzing age- and gender-specific differences in the hir- ing of western Germans, Stephan Humpert (2013) uses the IAB data used in this pa- per for the longer time span of 1974 to 2004 to show that younger and middle-aged males have better chances of changing their occupations than female and older per- sons. Barbara Hahnel and Regina T. Riphahn (2012) use different waves of the Ger- man Mikrozensus to show that eastern German mothers with young children have a 20 percent higher probability of finding work than mothers in the western part of Germany. Between 1996 and 2004, low- and medium-skilled mothers in eastern Germany lowered their labor supply, while highly skilled mothers did not. Alice Guyot, Stefan Berwing, and Maria Lauxen-Ulbrich (2009) give an example of male- female employment relations in one of the western German federal states. Here they use federal employment data (BA Beschäftigungspanel) for the case of Baden- Württemberg1. Stefan Bauernschuster and Helmut Rainer (2012) use different waves of a German social survey (The German General Social Survey - ALLBUS) to show that the gender roles concerning family and work differ statistically significantly be- tween East and West Germany. Reconciliation of family and work life is still pre- ferred in the eastern part of Germany.

See Tables 1 and 2 for the employment and unemployment rates of East and West German men and women since 1991.

However, using Eurostat data, Karl Brenke (2011) contends that not only fam- ily-related aspects count for part-time employment. While around 51 percent of em- ployed women in Germany work part-time because of the need to care for children 1 2 3 and relatives, 19 percent do so because of the lack of any full-time job offers. Most males (38 percent) prefer to change towards full-time employment as well. Com- pared with the average of the EU-27, fewer women but more men would like to change to full-time employment in Germany.

2. Measuring Occupational Sex Segregation

This paper deals with horizontal segregation, the ratio of men and women in specific occupations. Vertical segregation, however, deals with individual careers, such as the glass ceiling effect of non-promotion.

In the literature concerning segregation, there is a broader discussion of proper measurement. Surveys like those by Watts (1998) or Michael R. Ransom (2000) show the development and composition of relevant indicators. A long-time gold standard in measuring segregation is the Dissimilarity Index D, defined by Otis D. Duncan and Beverly Duncan (1955). The index is generally interpreted as measuring the proportion of the female workforce that would be required to shift between occu- pations in order to equalize female and male observations across different occupa- tions. It can be visually interpreted as the maximum distance between the equality line and the segregation curve. See Equation (1) for D:

... (1)

While Fi and Mi are the number of female and male workers for any given job i = 1,...,n, F and M are the total number of females and males in the entire workforce. The index D is scaled from zero to one, where zero means an equal and one an un- equal distribution. As a similar type of measure, Robert M. Hutchens (2001, 2004) composed the so-called Hutchens Square Root Segregation Index H. Again, the H Index is scaled from zero to one, where zero means no segregation and one total se- gregation. See Equation (2) for H:

... (2)

In contrast to this more common type of segregation measurement, the H In- dex satisfies a set of seven properties for good measurement of segregation instead of four4.

3. Data

The IAB Employment Sample (IABS-R04) is a rich data set provided by the German Federal Employment Agency. It is a 2 percent random sample based on administra- tive data on German social security. The full data include the working careers of more than 1.36 million individuals with around 25 million observations for the years from 1974 to 2004. These are working people covered by the social security legisla- tion and the unemployed who receive public unemployment transfers. A much more detailed description of the data set is given by Nils Drews (2008).

Following the German reunification in 1990, the eastern part, the former Ger- man Democratic Republic, has been included in the data since 1992. Therefore, the time span is limited to the years from 1992 to 2004. The data provide information for about 130 occupations, aggregated from the German system of job classifications compiled in 1988 (in German: Klassifikation der Berufe 1988). However, I use only 129 of them, because of non-identifiable job information in the last category. This limitation arises because category no. 130 includes people who work in a non-agri- cultural family business or in any other business that is not part of the other 129 cate- gories. See Table 4 in the Appendix for the list of jobs. To compare the results of segregation with other German studies, e.g. Hinz and Schübel (2001), or Beblo, Heinze, and Wolf (2008), only employed individuals who work full-time or part-time on the cut-off date of June 30th are observed. It should be noted, however, that part- time employment is not measured by working contracts, but by working hours. The limit is set to 18 working hours a week. It is obvious that full-time work is dominated by males and part-time work by females. Anker (1997) presents a compendium of stereotypes of male- and female-dominated jobs. Anne Busch (2013) discusses male-, female- and neutral-attributed tasks in Germany.

See Table 3 for descriptive statistics of the female labor supply over time.

Since the German unification, the shares of female part- and full-time work have slightly changed towards equality. In 1992, women accounted for over 90 per- cent of part-time employment. Then eastern German (91%) and western German women (92%) had similar shares. In full-time work, the shares differed. While 43 percent was carried out by women in the eastern part of Germany, only 34 percent was conducted by women in the western part. Since 2004, the distributions for full- time working women have remained rather constant. Over 42 percent of full-time work in eastern Germany is carried out by women, while in western Germany the figure is 35 percent. This shows that full-time work is still dominated by men. How- ever in the eastern part, because of a tradition for higher female and maternal em- ployment, the shares are higher.

The changes over time for part-time work are larger. In 2004, the shares of female part-time employment declined to 84 percent in the East and 83 percent in the West. This shows two implications. First, part-time employment is still a women- specific field, but second, more and more men are resorting to part-time employment.

4. Results

Before turning to the detailed results, I present the long-run differentials. Between 1992 and 2004, occupational sex segregation declined for German women. For west- ern Germany, the values of the D Index declined from 0.613 to 0.574, while the val- ues of the H Index declined from 0.313 to 0.270. Similar results are computed for eastern Germany. Here, the overall segregation declined from 0.622 to 0.616 (D In- dex), and respectively, from 0.325 to 0.310 (H Index).

Figures 1 and 2 show occupational sex segregation over the time span, sepa- rated into full-time and part-time employment in the East and in the West. See Figure 1 for the distributions computed by the D Index and Figure 2 for the H Index. It is obvious that both types of measures show rather identical distributions.

Segregation has declined over time in both parts of Germany. For full-time employment, the results are the following. The highest values are observed in west- ern Germany in 1993, when the D Index is 0.598 and the H Index 0.298. In eastern Germany, the highest values appear in 1994. The D Index is 0.636 and the H Index 0.341. For western Germany, the lowest values are in 2003, while the D Index is 0.559, the H Index is 0.255. In eastern Germany, the highest values are in 2002, while the D Index is around 0.605, the H Index is around 0.304. These results are in line with Falk (2002), who calculates, inter alia, D Indices that increase in eastern Germany between 1991 and 1996, and decrease until 2000. She interprets the early increase with the maximum in 1996 as an effect of a continuing economic transition, and not as an effect of a former socialist planned economy.

As discussed by Hinz and Schübel (2001), occupational sex segregation is lower in part-time employment. Although Beblo, Heinze, and Wolf (2008) report only slight differences between working time regimes, I present long-run shifts in segregation for part-time employment. For western Germany, the highest D Index is 0.564 in 1992, while the H Index is 0.229 in 1994. In eastern Germany, the highest values are in 1994. The D Index is 0.580 and the H Index 0.263. For western Germa- ny, the lowest D Index is 0.477 in 2004, while the H Index is 0.180 in 2003. In east- ern Germany, the lowest values are in 2002. The D Index is around 0.503 and the H Index 0.215. In the year 2000, there is a temporary re-increase for eastern Germany only.

Falk (2002) and Rosenfeld, Trappe, and Gornick (2004) both discuss the hy- pothesis of convergence of the eastern and western parts of Germany. While the se- gregation gap for full-time work rose in 1992 and then remained stable over time, the variation for part-time work seems to be more affected by cyclical effects. However, in fact, as Falk (2002) shows, a trend in convergence in occupational sex segregation is still not observable.

5. Conclusion

In the early years after the German unification in 1990, a tremendous change hap- pened regarding the former East German economy. Large parts of the industry were sold to companies in western Germany, while plants were closed because of non- competitive technology, old infrastructure and low capital endowment. This down- turn of industrial workplaces increased the local unemployment rates and raised the migration to western Germany. While the macroeconomic situation between the for- mer two countries converged over time because of massive public transfers, the two parts still differ in many respects, such as gender roles or maternal employment.

In this descriptive paper, I reassess the topic of occupational sex segregation for the areas covered by the former East Germany and West Germany. I use data from the regional file of the IAB Employment Sample (IABS-R04) to replicate the existing findings for the case of Germany for the longer time span of 1992 to 2004. Following the papers of Hinz and Schübel (2001), Falk (2002), and Beblo, Heinze, and Wolf (2008), I present three key results. First, segregation has declined over time. Second, segregation is still higher in the eastern part of Germany. There is no observable trend of convergence between East and West. Finally, these results hold for both full-time and part-time employment, while segregation is always lower for those working part-time.

Future research should turn towards long-term analysis of the interior differ- ences in the occupational structure. There may be a nexus between the ratio of indus- trial workplaces in the eastern and western parts of Germany and the size of occupa- tional sex segregation. Policy makers, however, should continue to generate equal opportunities on the labor market, such as closing the gap in pay between men and women.

Footnote

1 The federal states located in the South-West of Germany have a tradition of low female employment rates, especially for married women. A similar situation of a male-breadwinner model is described for example by Angela Cipollone, Marcella Corsi, and Carlo D'Ippoliti (2011) for the case of Italy.

2 https://www.destatis.de/EN/FactsFigures/NationalEconomyEnvironment/LabourMarket/Employment/ Employment.html

3 http://statistik.arbeitsagentur.de/Navigation/Statistik/Statistik-nach-Themen/Arbeitsmarkt-im- Ueberblick/zu-den-Daten/zu-den-Daten-Nav.html

4 See Hutchens (2004) for the mathematical proof.

References

References

Alonso-Villar, Olga, Coral del Río, and Carlos Gradín. 2012. "The Extent of Occupational Segregation in the United States: Differences by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender." Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 51(2): 179-212.

Anker, Richard. 1997. "Theories of Occupational Segregation by Sex: An Overview." International Labor Review, 136(3): 315-339.

Bauernschuster, Stefan, and Helmut Rainer. 2012. "Political Regimes and the Family: How Sex-Role Attitudes Continue in Reunified Germany." Journal of Population Economics, 25(1): 5-27.

Beblo, Miriam, Anja Heinze, and Elke Wolf. 2008. "Entwicklung der beruflichen Segregation von Männern und Frauen zwischen 1996 und 2005 - Eine Bestandsaufnahme auf betrieblicher Ebene." Zeitschrift für Arbeitsmarkt Forschung, 41(2-3): 181-198.

Blau, Francine D., Peter Brummund, and Albert Yung-Hsu Liu. 2013. "Trends in Occupational Segregation by Gender 1970-2009: Adjusting for the Impact of Changes in the Occupational Coding System." Demography, 50(2): 471-492.

Brenke, Karl. 2011. "Ongoing Change in the Structure of Part-Time Employment." German Institute for Economic Research Economic Bulletin, 1(6): 13-22.

Brooks, Bradley, Jennifer Jarman, and Robert M. Blackburn. 2003. "Occupational Gender Segregation in Canada, 1981-1996: Overall, Vertical and Horizontal Segregation." Canadian Review of Sociology, 40(2): 197-213.

Busch, Anne. 2013. "Der Einfluss der beruflichen Geschlechtersegregation auf das 'Gender Pay Gap'. Zur Bedeutung geschlechtlich konotierter Arbeitsinhalte." Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 65(2): 301-338.

Cipollone, Angela, Marcella Corsi, and Carlo D'Ippoliti. 2011. "Knowledge and Job Opportunities in a Gender Perspective: Insights from Italy." Panoeconomicus, 58(Special Issue): 735-757.

Del Río, Coral, and Olga Alonso-Villar. 2010. "Gender Segregation in the Spanish Labor Market: An Alternative Approach." Social Indicator Research, 98(2): 337-362.

Drews, Nils. 2008. "Das Regionalfile der IAB-Beschäftigungsstichprobe 1975-2004. Handbuch-Version 1.0.3." Research Data Centre Methodenreport 2/2008.

Duncan, Otis D., and Beverly Duncan. 1955. "A Methodological Analysis of Segregation Indices." American Sociological Review, 20(2): 210-217.

Falk, Susanne. 2002. "Geschlechtsspezifische und berufliche Segregation in Ostdeutschland zwischen Persistenz, Verdrängung und Angleichung: Ein Vergleich mit Westdeutschland für die Jahre 1991-2000." Mitteilungen aus der Arbeitsmarkt - und Berufsforschung, 35(1): 37-59.

Guyot, Alice, Stefan Berwing, and Maria Lauxen-Ulbrich. 2009. "Income Differentials on Regional Labour Markets in Southwest Germany." Panoeconomicus, 56(3): 379-396.

Hahnel, Barbara, and Regina T. Riphahn. 2012. "The Employment of Mothers: Recent Developments and Their Determinants in East and West Germany." Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, 232(2): 146-176.

Hinz, Thomas, and Thomas Schübel. 2001. "Geschlechtersegregation in deutschen Betrieben." Mitteilungen aus der Arbeitsmarkt - und Berufsforschung, 34(3): 268-301.

Humpert, Stephan. 2013. "Age and Gender Differences in Job Opportunities." International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 3(1): 104-133.

Hutchens, Robert M. 2001. "Numerical Measures of Segregation: Desirable Properties and Their Implications." Mathematical Social Sciences, 42(1): 13-29.

Hutchens, Robert M. 2004. "One Measure of Segregation." International Economic Review, 45(2): 555-578.

Melkas, Helinä, and Richard Anker. 1997. "Occupational Segregation by Sex in Nordic Countries: An Empirical Investigation." International Labor Review, 136(3): 341-363.

Neuman, Shoshana. 1998. "Occupational Segregation in the Israeli Labour Market: The Gender-Ethnicity Interaction." International Journal of Manpower, 19(8): 571-591.

Preston, Jo Anne. 1999. "Occupational Gender Segregation Trends and Explanations." The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 39(5): 611-624.

Ransom, Michael R. 2000. "Sampling Distributions of Segregation Indexes." Sociological Methods and Research, 28(4): 454-475.

Rich, Judith, and Serap Palaz. 2008. "Why Has Occupational Sex Segregation in Turkey Increased since 1975?" Labour, 22(1): 185-218.

Rosenfeld, Rachel A., Heike Trappe, and Janet C. Gornick. 2004. "Gender and Work in Germany: Before and After Reunification." Annual Review of Sociology, 30(1): 103- 124.

Salardie, Paola. 2012. "The Evolution of Gender and Racial Occupational Segregation across Formal and Non-Formal Segregation in Brazil - 1987 to 2006." Society for the Study of Economic Inequality Working Paper 243.

Sørense, Annemette, and Heike Trappe. 1995. "The Persistence of Gender Inequality in Earnings in the German Democratic Republic." American Sociological Review, 60(3): 398-406.

Swanson, Paul A. 2005. "Occupational Sex Segregation and Economic Development." Journal of Business and Economic Research, 3(8): 43-52.

Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald, Catherine Zimmer, Kevin Stainback, Corre Robinson, Tiffany Taylor, and Tricia McTague. 2006. "Documenting Desegregation: Segregation in American Workplaces by Race, Ethnicity and Sex, 1966-2003." American Sociological Review, 71(4): 565-588.

Watts, Martin, and Judith Rich. 1993. "Occupational Sex Segregation in Britain, 1979- 1989: The Persistence of Sexual Stereotypes." Cambridge Journal of Economics, 17(2): 159-177.

Watts, Martin. 1998. "Occupational Gender Segregation: Index Measurement and Economic Modeling." Demography, 35(4): 489-496.

Watts, Martin. 2003. "The Evolution of Occupational Gender Segregation in Australia: Measurement and Interpretation." Australian Journal of Labour Economics, 6(4): 631- 655.

Appendix

Appendix

Table 4 List of Jobs

1 Farmers/Winegrowers/Animal breeders/Fishermen/Managers in agriculture and animal breeding/Agricultural engineers, agriculture advisers/Milkers/Family-member land workers, n.e.c./ Animal keepers and related occupations

2 Land workers

3 Gardeners, garden workers

4 Garden architects, garden managers/Florists/Forestry managers, foresters, hunters/Forest workers, forest cultivators

5 Miners/Mechanical, electrical, face workers, shot firers/Stone crushers/Earth, gravel, sand quarries/Oil, natural gas quarries/Mineral preparers, mineral burners

6 Stone preparers/Jewel preparers/Stoneware, earthenware makers/Shaped brick, concrete block makers

7 Ceramics workers/Frit makers/Hollow glassware makers/Flat glass makers/Glass blowers (lamps)/Glass processors, glass finishers

8 Chemical plant operatives/Chemical laboratory workers

9 Rubber makers, processors/Vulcanization

10 Plastics processors

11 Paper, cellulose makers/Packaging makers/Book binding occupations/Other paper product makers

12 Type setters, compositors/Printed goods makers/Printers (letterpress)/Printers (flat, graver)/Special printers, screens/Copiers/Printer's assistants

13 Wood preparers/Wood molders and related occupations/Wood product makers/Basket and wicker product makers

14 Iron, metal producers, melters/Rollers/Metal drawers

15 Molders, core-makers/Mold casters/Semi-finished product fettlers and other mold-casting occupations

16 Sheet metal pressers, drawers, stampers/Wire molders, processors/Other metal molders (non-cutting deformation)

17 Turners

18 Drillers/Planers/Borers/Metal grinders/Other metal-cutting occupations

19 Metal grinders

20 Metal polishers/Engravers, chasers/Metal finishers/Galvanism, metal colorists/Enamelers, zinc platers and other metal surface finishers

21 Welders, oxy-acetylene cutters/Solderers/Riveters/Metal bonders and other metal connectors

22 Steel smiths/Container builders, copper-smiths and related occupations/Sheet metal workers/Pipe, tubing fitters

23 Plumbers

24 Locksmiths, not specified/Building fitters/Sheet metal, plastics fitters

25 Engine fitters

26 Plant fitters, maintenance fitters

27 Steel structure fitters, metal shipbuilders

28 Motor vehicle repairers

29 Agricultural machinery repairers/Aircraft mechanics/Precision mechanics

30 Other mechanics/Watch- and clock-makers

31 Toolmakers

32 Precision fitters n.e.c./Precious metal smiths/Dental technicians/Ophthalmic opticians/Musical instrument makers/Doll makers, model makers, taxidermists

33 Electrical fitters, mechanics

34 Telecommunications mechanics, craftsmen

35 Electric motor, transformer fitters/Electrical appliance fitters/Radio, sound equipment mechanics

36 Electrical appliance, electrical parts assemblers

37 Other assemblers

38 Metal workers (no further specification)

39 Spinners, fiber preparers/Spoolers, twisters, rope-makers/Weaving preparers/Weavers/Tufted goods makers/Machined goods mak- ers/Felt makers, hat body makers/Textile processing operatives (braiders)

40 Cutters/Laundry cutters, sewers/Embroiderers/Hat, cap makers/Sewers, n.e.c./Other textile processing operatives/Textile dyers/Textile finishers

41 Clothing sewers

42 Leather makers, catgut string makers/Shoemakers/Footwear makers/Coarse leather goods finishers, truss makers/Fine leather goods makers/Leather clothing makers and other leather processing operatives/Hand shoemakers/Skin processing operatives

43 Bakery goods makers/Confectioners (pastry)

44 Butchers/Meat, sausage goods makers/Fish processing operatives

45 Cooks/Ready-to-serve meals, fruit, vegetable preservers, preparers

46 Wine coopers/Brewers, maltsters/Other beverage makers, tasters/Tobacco goods makers/Milk, fat processing operatives/Flour, food processors/Sugar, sweets, ice-cream makers

47 Bricklayers

48 Concrete workers

49 Carpenters/Scaffolds

50 Roofers

51 Paviors/Road makers/Track-layers/Explosives men (except shot-firers)/Land improvement, hydraulic engineering workers/Other civil engineering workers

52 Building laborers, general

53 Earth movers/Other building laborers, building assistants, n.e.c.

54 Stucco workers, plasterers, rough casters/Insulators, proofers/Tile setters/Furnace setter, air heating installers/Glaziers/Screed, terraz- zo layers

55 Room equippers/Upholsterers, mattress makers

56 Carpenters/Model, form carpenters/Cart-wrights, wheelwrights, coopers/Other wood and sports equipment makers

57 Painters, lacquers (construction)

58 Goods painters, lacquers/Wood surface finishers, veneers/Ceramics, glass painters

59 Goods examiners, sorters, n.e.c.

60 Packagers, goods receivers, dispatchers

61 Assistants (no further specification)

62 Generator machinists/Winding engine drivers, aerial rope-way machinists/Other machinists/Crane drivers/Earth-moving plant driv- ers/Construction machine attendants/Machine attendants, machinists' helpers/Stokers/Machine setters (no further specification)

63 Mechanical, motor engineers

64 Electrical engineers

65 Architects, civil engineers

66 Survey engineers/Mining, metallurgy, foundry engineers/Other manufacturing engineers

67 Other engineers

68 Chemists, chemical engineers/Physicists, physics engineers, mathematicians/Building technicians

69 Mechanical engineering technicians

70 Electrical engineering technicians

71 Measurement technicians/Mining, metallurgy, foundry technicians/Chemistry, physics technicians/Remaining manufacturing techni- cians

72 Other technicians

73 Foremen, master mechanics

74 Biological specialists/Physical and mathematical specialists/Chemical laboratory assistants/Photo laboratory assistants

75 Technical draughtswomen

76 Wholesale and retail trade buyers, buyers

77 Salespersons

78 Publishing house dealers, booksellers/Druggists, chemists (pharmacy)/Pharmacy aids/Service-station attendants

79 Commercial agents, travelers/Mobile traders

80 Bank specialists/Building society specialists

81 Health insurance specialists (not social security)/Life, property insurance specialists

82 Forwarding business dealers

83 Tourism specialists/Publicity occupations/Brokers, property managers/Landlords, agents, auctioneers/Cash collectors, cashiers, ticket sellers, inspectors

84 Railway engine drivers

85 Railway controllers, conductors

86 Motor vehicle drivers

87 Navigating ships officers/Technical ships officers, ships engineers/Deck seamen/Inland boatmen/Other water transport occupations/Air transport occupations

88 Post masters/Radio operators/Telephonists

89 Postal deliverers

90 Warehouse managers, warehousemen

91 Transportation equipment drivers

92 Stowers, furniture packers/Stores, transport workers

93 Entrepreneurs, managing directors, divisional managers

94 Management consultants, organizers/Chartered accountants, tax advisers

95 Members of Parliament, ministers, elected officials/Senior government officials/Association leaders, officials

96 Cost accountants, valuers

97 Accountants

98 Cashiers

99 Data processing specialists

100 Office specialists

101 Stenographers, shorthand-typists, typists

102 Data typists

103 Office auxiliary workers

104 Factory guards, detectives/Watchmen, custodians/Soldiers, border guards, police officers/Firefighters/Safety testers/Chimney sweeps/Health-protecting occupations/Arbitrators/Judicial administrators/Legal representatives, advisers/Judicial enforcers

105 Doormen, caretakers

106 Domestic and non-domestic servants

107 Journalists/Interpreters, translators/Librarians, archivists, museum specialists

108 Musicians/Artists' agents/Visual, commercial artists/Scenery, sign painters/Artistic and assisting occupations (stage, video and au- dio)/Interior, exhibition designers, window dressers/Photographers/Performers, professional sportsmen, auxiliary artistic occupations

109 Physicians/Dentists/Veterinary surgeons/Pharmacists

110 Non-medical practitioners/Masseurs, physiotherapists and related occupations

111 Nurses, midwives

112 Nursing assistants

113 Dietary assistants, pharmaceutical assistants/Medical laboratory assistants

114 Medical receptionists

115 Social workers, care workers/Work, vocational advisers

116 Home wardens, social work teachers

117 Nursery teachers, child nurses

118 University teachers, lecturers at higher technical schools and academies/Gymnasium teachers/Technical, vocational, factory instruc- tors/Music teachers n.e.c./Sports teachers/Other teachers

119 Primary, secondary (basic), special school teachers

120 Economic and social scientists, statisticians/Humanities specialists n.e.c./Scientists n.e.c./Nursing staff/Ministers of religion/Members of religious orders without specific occupation/Religious care helpers

121 Hairdressers/Other body care occupations

122 Restaurant, inn, bar keepers, hotel proprietors, catering trade dealers

123 Waiters, stewards

124 Others attending on guests

125 Housekeeping managers/Consumer advisers/Other housekeeping attendants/Employees by household cheque procedure

126 Laundry workers, pressers/Textile cleaners, dyers and dry cleaners

127 Household cleaners

128 Glass, buildings cleaners

129 Street cleaners, refuse disposers/Vehicle cleaners, services/Machinery, container cleaners and related occupations

130* * Non-agricultural family assistants n.e.c./Trainees with recognized training occupation still to be specified/Interns, unpaid trainees with recognized training occupation still to be specified/Workforce (job seekers) with occupation still to be specified

* Excluded because of insecure job information

Source: IABS-R04.