OBJECT AND OTHER METAPHORS IN ENGLISH 'FEAR' QUOTATIONS

Abstract

The paper studies the language of fear quotes in common people's passages on the internet site www.searchquotes.com/search/Fear. The paper investigates which fear metaphors listed in Kövecses (1990, 2000) are instantiated in the corpus and finds that the container metaphor, which seems to be central according to Kövecses, is much less represented than expected, while there is a wide range of versions of the object metaphor in the corpus, which is not identified in his works.

Headnote

Abstract: The paper studies the language of fear quotes in common people's passages on the internet site www.searchquotes.com/search/Fear. The paper investigates which fear metaphors listed in Kövecses (1990, 2000) are instantiated in the corpus and finds that the container metaphor, which seems to be central according to Kövecses, is much less represented than expected, while there is a wide range of versions of the object metaphor in the corpus, which is not identified in his works.

Keywords: basic emotion, container metaphor, fear, object metaphor

1. Introduction

Emotions are very important human experiences with which people react to whatever may happen to them. The components that emotions comprise are bodily reactions, facial expressions, emotional reactions and a cognitive appraisal of the situation in question (cf. Bányai, 2013: 51, Atkinson et al. 1997: 309). Linguistic research mainly focuses on what people really mean when they talk about details of their emotions. Cognitive linguistics investigates linguistic expressions of emotions and finds that the language of emotion represents the way we conceptualize emotions.

My present focus of interest is fear, one of the basic emotions in Ekman et al.'s (1972) sense, an "emotion caused by the nearness or possibility of danger, pain, evil, etc." (Hornby 1989). Fear is our response to a situation in which we are faced with some physical danger or some other threat to our personal security. Depending on the intensity of our fear and the cognitive appraisal of the dangerous situation, we either take action to cope with it, or flee from the situation, or freeze, not being able to do anything (Lazarus 1991).

The present paper investigates the concept of fear present in passages on fear on the internet site <www.searchquotes.com/search/Fear>. This site organizes passages under headings like 'acceptance', 'beauty', 'fear' and 'you thought wrong', which are popular topics for people today. At the end of each passage, it is indicated who the author of the passage is and who posted it. However, there are no specific references to where the passages come from. The authors are from almost all walks of life: anonymous people and people giving their names or nicknames, as well as world-famous writers, musicians, celebrities, etc. The site states that its "goal is to help you by delivering amazing quotes to bring inspiration, personal growth, love and happiness to your everyday life".

2. Theoretical background

Cognitive linguistic studies of fear claim that details of our fear experience are captured in conceptual metaphors and metonymies. Metonymies mainly present details of physiological reactions and facial expressions accompanying fear, which are observable bodily symptoms (Wierzbicka 1999: 276), while metaphors present other aspects of fear, which are mainly subjective experiences taking place inside the body and usually based on thoughts (Wierzbicka 1999:305), therefore not observable.

Kövecses (1990:69-74) gives a detailed account of fear metonymies including PHYSICAL AGITATION, INCREASE IN HEART RATE, DRYNESS IN THE MOUTH, ABSENCE OF BLOOD IN THE FACE, NERVOUSNESS IN THE STOMACH, SWEATING, DROP IN BODY TEMPERATURE, SKIN SHRINKS, (INVOLUNTARY) RELEASE OF BOWELS or BLADDER, FLIGHT, WAYS OF LOOKING. Following the metonymic principle, Kövecses claims that all these phenomena may stand for fear, that is, "The physiological effects of fear stand for fear" and "The behavioural reactions of fear stand for fear" (Kövecses 1990: 73). On the other hand, Kövecses discusses a number of metaphors that conceptualize some other details of fear, mostly subjective inner bodily experiences (e.g. Fear was rising in him - Kövecses 1990: 75) and the cause, the attempt at control and the loss of control aspects of fear. He identifies the metaphors FEAR IS A FLUID IN A CONTAINER, FEAR IS A VICIOUS ENEMY, FEAR IS A TORMENTOR, FEAR IS AN ILLNESS, FEAR IS A SUPERNATURAL BEING, FEAR IS AN OPPONENT, FEAR IS A BURDEN, FEAR IS A NATURAL FORCE, FEAR IS A SUPERIOR (Kövecses 1990:74-78).

Kövecses (2000) gives the following list of fear metaphors: FEAR IS A FLUID IN A CONTAINER, FEAR IS A HIDDEN ENEMY, FEAR IS A TORMENTOR, FEAR IS A SUPERNATURAL BEING, FEAR IS AN ILLNESS, FEAR IS INSANITY, THE SUBJECT OF FEAR IS A DIVIDED SELF, FEAR IS AN OPPONENT IN A STRUGGLE, FEAR IS A BURDEN, FEAR IS A NATURAL FORCE, FEAR IS A SOCIAL SUPERIOR (Kövecses 2000:23).

I have the following remarks to make concerning the differences between the two lists:

(1)It is not clear what difference can be found between a vicious enemy and a hidden one, especially because Kövecses gives the same examples to illustrate them in both of his works, namely, "Fear slowly crept up on him. He was hounded by the fear that business would fail. The thought continued to prey on her mind" (cf. Kövecses 1990: 75; 2000: 23). (N.B.: Referring to Kövecses (1998), Stefanowitsch (2006: 78-79) questions the distinction between FEAR IS A VICIOUS ENEMY, FEAR IS A TORMENTOR, and FEAR IS AN OPPONENT IN A STRUGGLE and suggests that they should be subsumed under FEAR IS AN ENEMY.)

(2) Kövecses lists the insanity metaphor instantiated by "Jack was insane with fear (Kövecses 2000: 23); however, I think that insanity is a special kind of illness, so the two metaphors FEAR IS INSANITY and FEAR IS AN ILLNESS may be subsumed under FEAR IS AN ILLNESS.

(3) In the last metaphor, FEAR IS A SUPERIOR, Kövecses (2000) inserts the adjective 'SOCIAL' and gives an example from his 1990 list, "His actions were dictated by fear" (Kövecses 1990: 78, 2000: 23). Having considered the other examples in Kövecses's 1990 list, I claim that the insertion of the term 'social' should only be understood as a refinement of the original version of the metaphor. However, I find that the expression "Her fear prevented her from going into the house" in Kövecses's 1990 list is not to be identified as an instantiation of the social superior metaphor, but rather of the metaphor FEAR IS AN OBSTACLE (see below).

(4) The metaphor THE SUBJECT OF FEAR IS A DIVIDED SELF, instantiated by "I was beside myself with fear" (Kövecses 2000: 24), has no counterpart in Kövecses's 1990 analysis; however, he identifies practically the same expression (I was beside myself) as an instantiation of FEAR IS AN INCOMPLETE OBJECT (Kövecses1998: 128-129). Stefanowitsch argues that the expression refers to an "out-of-body situation rather than an incomplete object" (Stefanowitsch 2006: 78-79). Hornby (1989) defines the idiom be beside oneself with something as "have lost one's self-control because of the intensity of the emotion one is feeling" and gives the example "He was beside himself with rage when I told him what I had done". It must be noted that adding phrases like with fear/rage specifies the emotion. The underlying metaphor conceptualizing the loss of control aspect of intense emotions is THE SELF EXPERIENCING INTENSE FEAR/EMOTION IS OUTSIDE THE BODY CONTAINER.

The studies referred to above show that metonymies capture mostly physiological reactions accompanying fear, while metaphors, the most frequently instantiated and the most elaborated of which are the container and the enemy metaphors, depict subjective inner bodily experiences of fear.

3. Fear metaphors on www.searchquotes.com/search/Fear

3.1. Data collection and processing

The literature surveyed above argues that the language describing fear experiences is pervaded by metaphorical and metonymical expressions. In the present paper, I wish to investigate whether the same is true for the language of short passages concerning fear. I hypothesize that passages retrieved from the Internet site <www.searchquotes.com/search/Fear> also abound in figurative expressions. I use Kövecses's 1990 and 2000 conceptual metaphors and metonymies as checklists to investigate which metaphors and metonymies are instantiated in my corpus. I shall also attempt to find out whether there are any further metaphors and metonymies instantiated, and discuss what aspects of the concept "fear" they highlight.

My corpus is made up of 155 passages collected from the first 22 pages of the site <www.searchquotes.com/search/Fear>. (At the time of the retrieval, the site consisted of 329 pages and the passages were of two kinds: an introductory passage, followed by quotations from common people giving ideas on fear. The contributors are either unknown or use nicknames.) I have selected the passages that contain the terms fear, fearful, frightened, arranged the passages into groups according to the imagery used in them, and checked them for metaphors and metonymies.

I have found that the 155 passages under investigation instantiate 26 different metaphors, but no metonymies at all. 95 passages instantiate only 5 metaphors (FEAR IS AN OBJECT with 33 instantiations, FEAR IS AN ENEMY with 26 instantiations, FEAR IS A POWER OVER THE SELF with 17 instantiations, FEAR IS AN OBSTACLE with 10 instantiations, and FEAR IS A CONTAINER with 8 instantiations). The rest of the metaphors are instantiated by 1 to 5 passages, which makes them seem considerably less significant; therefore, in the present paper, I shall only discuss the five most frequently instantiated metaphors in my corpus.

3.2. Metaphors in the introductory passage

The passage below is the introduction to the subpage 'fear' on Searchquotes. It gives some preliminary ideas on fear:

Fear is the frightening thought that causes anxiety or worry. Fear gives you negative thoughts and reduces your self-confidence. Fear must be present only while doing unwanted immoral actions and not for darkness or anything else. Fear is the first hindrance towards all your actions. A coward is never appreciated, but only made fun of by others. In contrast, one who is fearless to tread any path wins the appreciation and gains a lot of confidence and courage.

Fear has the tendency to spread like wild fire and is also contagious. Hence, we should keep fear out. Fear increases the challenge and will not help to come out of the crisis. But when we try to analyze after a while, we see that it was highly silly to have developed fear for such trivial things and we try to scoff at it. "Fear is the lengthened shadow of ignorance "said Arnold Glasgow. The first step towards wisdom is to conquer fear and remove it from our minds. So, be wise.

As can be seen, the passage is rich in metaphors. In the first three sentences, fear is shown to be an active and powerful entity that causes several negative reactions and seems to be stronger than the person who experiences it. The underlying metaphor may be FEAR IS A SUPERIOR, which is identified by Kövecses (1990). It is interesting to note here that, although the first sentence identifies fear as a thought, both psychologists and lay people think of it as an emotion. Furthermore, it is said to be the cause of anxiety and worry here, which are two other emotions. Ekman et al. (1972) and Ekman (1992) call fear a basic emotion, Lazarus (1991) claims that it is the name of a family of related emotions. Anxiety and worry are members of the fear emotion family just like horror, panic, fright and a few other emotions. In the first paragraph, fear is also shown to hinder one from doing one's actions. The underlying metaphor is FEAR IS AN OBSTACLE. Both metaphors show fear as a destructive or negative force, which is a specific case of the conception of emotion as a disruptive force (Wierzbicka 1999: 17-19, referred to in Goatly 2007: 205).

In the second paragraph, fear is presented as a combination of several negative aspects. First of all, it is "compared" to fire, which is one of the most dangerous elements or one of the most prototypical dangers (Lakoff 1987). It is also seen as contagious, which is another undesirable feature, especially when it is associated with diseases. (N.B.: The phrase contagious fire is used as a technical term in contexts related to police or military actions "where an initial officer's shots launch a cascade of gunfire from other officers present" (White, Klinger 2008). Hornby's (1989) example is Fear spread through the crowd like a contagion.). Both the image of fire and the image of contagion share the underlying metaphor FEAR IS A DANGEROUS THING.

Several other metaphors can be identified in the second paragraph: FEAR IS A HUMAN (HUMAN-LIKE) BEING. (Rewis-Łetkowska 2015: 384), instantiated byfear increases the challenge and will not help to come out of the crisis, develop fear and scoff at it (N.B.: one can scoff at dangers and many other things that we think of contemptuously), FEAR IS AN ENEMY instantiated by to conquer fear, and FEAR IS AN (UNDESIREABLE) OBJECT IN THE MIND CONTAINER instantiated by (to) remove it [fear] from our minds. It must be noted that the enemy metaphor is identified in Kövecses's analyses, however, the dangerous thing, human (human-like) being and object metaphors are not, and the container image is used in different versions of the metaphor, combined with the concept of fear as fluid, for example.

3.3. Metaphors in the quotations

3.3.1. Fear as object

My corpus contains 33 passages instantiating the metaphor FEAR IS AN OBJECT. This relatively large number of instantiations highlights a wide range of features of the concept of object: objects can be measured, compared and modified, possessed and shared, replaced, resisted and eliminated. Expressions that map such features of objects as the source domain onto the concept of fear as the target domain instantiate versions of the object metaphor. Below I give a list of the versions identified in my corpus. (I shall restrict the number of examples to 1-3, due to paper length limits.)

(a) FEAR IS A MEASURABLE OBJECT

1. Let the fear of being average push you to a status above the average fear. Refuse to accept mediocrity.

2. The power of our obstacles is directly proportional to the size of our fears.

(b) FEAR IS A COMPARABLE OBJECT

3. Let your hopes and dreams be bigger than your fear and problems.

4. The Power of Loving your life is far stronger than fear of Death.

(c) FEAR IS A MODIFIABLE OBJECT

5. Your smile is all I really need to ease fear [...].

6. [...] The more you engage to your power and capability, the faster your fear of failure dwindles away as you take a new perspective.

(d) FEAR IS A POSSESSABLE OBJECT.

7. Everyone has fear. But we shouldn't make our fears so large that they stop us from achieving our goals.

(e) FEAR IS A SHAREABLE OBJECT.

8. Keep your fears to yourself; share your courage with others.

(f) FEAR IS A RESISTABLE OBJECT

9. Achieving your dreams requires that you have enough courage and will power to resist your fear and doubts.

(g) FEAR IS A REPLACEABLE OBJECT.

10. Replace fear of the unknown with curiosity!

(h) FEAR IS AN ELIMINABLE OBJECT

11. To live with Faith, eliminate fear. Only one can exist in our Life at any point of time.

12. Leave your fear behind.

Metaphors (a-c) above seem to have the intensity component in common, which can be compared, measured and modified, therefore we think that they highlight the intensity component of fear from different angles. Metaphors (d-e) highlight the idea of possession, that is, objects usually belong to people, who own them, and once people own things, they can share or keep them to themselves. (Example 8 does not say directly that fear can be shared, however, it implies it by way of contrasting fear as a negative entity and courage as a positive one and keeping the former to oneself and sharing the latter.) The common component in metaphors (f-h) is that fear is not supposed to be present in one's life, therefore it should be resisted, replaced or eliminated. In other words "we should keep fear out" or ÍĹhide iť as stated in the second paragraph of the introductory passage (see in section 3.2. above).

3.3.2. Fear as enemy

It has been shown above that Kövecses's (1990, 2000) metaphors FEAR IS A VICIOUS ENEMY/HIDDEN ENEMY, FEAR IS A TORMENTOR, FEAR IS AN OPPONENT (IN A STRUGGLE) may be subsumed in FEAR IS AN ENEMY. The key terms of the enemy source domain instantiated by 26 passages in our corpus are overcome, conquer, fight through, enemy, face as in the examples below:

13. A person who has conquered the fear offailure can achieve everything in life.

14. It is courage which makes you fight through your fears and help you become more self-confident [...].

15. Living a life of victory is an overcoming of daily fears.

16. [.] just remember everything you have faced, all the battles you have won, and all the fears you have overcome.

17. facing our fears and overcoming them will make us strong and capable enough to face any challenges in life.

18. Fear is a man 's worst enemy, but love is a man's most powerful weapon against anything.

19. To conquer fear is the best way to gain your self-confidence.

The image of victory in sentence 15, the image of battle in 16 and the image of weapon in 18 prove that the enemy source domain is well-elaborated in relation to fear and can be understood in a larger context, the context of war. Kövecses identifies the correspondences between the opponent source domain and fear target domain as follows: opponent : fear, struggling with the opponent : struggling for emotional control, defeating the opponent : controlling fear and losing to the opponent : fear controlling the self (Kövecses 1990:77). Although the examples in our corpus may refer to a possible loss to the enemy/fear, they are more likely to encourage people to defeat the enemy, that is, to gain control over their fear, which results in becoming more self-confident and successful. We think that the lack of examples relating the loss of control aspect of fear can be explained by the self-help and take-responsibility-for-yourself character of the page, which is much less pervasive when we describe how afraid we are.

3.3.3. Fear as power over the self

As already pointed out, Kövecses identifies the metaphors FEAR IS A SUPERIOR (1990:78) and FEAR IS A SOCIAL SUPERIOR (2000:23), giving the example His actions were dictated by fear in both of his works. He explains that such metaphorical expressions capture the phenomenon that intense emotions may "force us to perform certain actions", that is, the SUPERIOR metaphor "suggests that the self is inferior who obeys the commands of the superior" (Kövecses 1990: 78).

In my corpus, one can find a similar metaphor instantiated by 17 examples. The passages show the potential of fear to be/become stronger than the self and take control over the self, overwhelm the self, dictate or define things and so on. The passages suggest that people should not allow fear to do such things or should avoid situations in which their fear may become stronger than themselves. Therefore, we think that the underlying metaphor is FEAR IS A POWER OVER THE SELF, which is more general than Kövecses's superior metaphor, and addresses the question of control too, for example:

20. Never let fear stay in control over your life. Be the best control of your unfailing wisdom. Fear isn't the answer to get you through motivation.

21. Don't let fear break your determination.

22. Never be overwhelmed by fear [...]

23. It's not the thing you fear that has power over you, it's your fear of that thing that has power over you.

24. Commit to not letting your fears define your boundaries.

25. Most people are paralyzed by fear. Overcome it and you take charge of your life and your world.

3.3.4. Fear as obstacle

Having control over one's fear is exemplified in You can learn to.feel less fearful and to cope with your. fear so it doesn't stop you enjoying life and it takes us to the following metaphor, FEAR IS AN OBSTACLE (with 10 instantiations in my corpus), by stating that the purpose of gaining control over one's fear is to stop it from preventing us to do the things we want to do:

26. Fear holds people back from reaching their true potential.

27. Fear of failure is the biggest obstacle between you and your dreams.

28. A fearful mind builds a wall between you and your dream.

Sentences 26 and 27 express the same idea that we have already found in Fear is the first hindrance towards all your actions in the introductory section. Sentence 28 is more complex because fear seen as an obstacle is presented as a wall, which is the product of a fearful mind. So the ontological correspondences are: a physical wall (between you and your destination) is an obstacle: an abstract wall (between you and your dream) is an obstacle, a physical wall is a product of someone's building activity: an abstract wall is a product of the building activity of a fearful mind, a physical wall/obstacle hinders you from reaching your destination: an abstract wall hinders you from realizing your dream. These correspondences provide the mapping for the metaphors A FEARFUL MIND IS A BUILDER OF ABSTRACT WALLS and FEAR IS A SUBSTANCE IN A CONTAINER; THE MIND IS A CONTAINER FOR FEAR; FEAR IS A SUBSTANCE IN THE MIND CONTAINER, which are combined in the metaphor A(N ABSTRACT) WALL IS AN OBSTACLE BUILT BY A MIND CONTAINING FEAR SUBSTANCE. (It must be noted that the obstacle metaphor is not found in Kövecses's lists of fear metaphors.)

3.3.5. Fear as container

As we have just seen, the container metaphor is present in the conceptualization of fear. At the generic level, there are two versions of the metaphor EMOTIONS ARE CONTAINERS: one is EMOTIONS ARE FLUIDS/SUBSTANCES IN THE BODY CONTAINER (e.g. She is full of grief. His eyes are filled with joy.) and the other is EMOTIONS ARE CONTAINERS FOR THE SELF (e.g. In his surprise he did not know what to say.) The specific version of the latter for fear is FEAR IS A CONTAINER FOR THE SELF (instantiated by 8 examples). It is typically used when the emotion is very intense, in fact, so intense that it takes control over the self as in the following examples:

29. There are many who live life in fear, without taking risks. They don't take chances. Alas! Not only are they missing chances, they are missing Life itself!

30. If you live in fear, success will disappear.

31. I lost myself in the fear, I found myself in the grief.

32. Don't waste life in fear. When you do something do it with all your might and confidence. Nothing great can be achieved with fear and doubt.

33. To be up lifted, convince yourself that you can achieve anything you put your mind into. Psyche yourself out offear and go for the win.

Example 33 above suggests that the experiencer should actively work himself/herself out of the state of fear. In 33, fear is clearly conceptualized as a container. The ontological correspondence is: getting out of a container: psyching oneself out of fear.

4.Conclusion

It can be stated that there are no metonymies instantiated in my corpus, which may be explained by the fact that the passages do not give descriptions of people's physiological reactions and/or of facial expressions accompanying fear, when they are in dangerous situations.

I have identified the following metaphors on the internet site <www.searchquotes.com/search/Fear>: FEAR IS AN OBJECT (undesireable/ measurable/ comparable/ modifiable/ possessable/ shareable/ resistable/ replaceable/ eliminable object; FEAR IS AN ENEMY; FEAR IS A POWER OVER THE SELF; FEAR IS AN OBSTACLE (and its version A(N ABSTRACT) WALL IS AN OBSTACLE BUILT BY A MIND CONTAINING FEAR SUBSTANCE); FEAR IS A CONTAINER FOR THE SELF. The object metaphor has 10 versions, and thus it is the best elaborated, while the container metaphor has only one version and has the smallest number of instantiations in my corpus.

The cognitive linguistic view on emotion claims that the container metaphor pervades our language of emotion, however, the number of examples in our corpus does not support it. The kinds and range of metaphorical source domains for fear highlight several aspects of fear, the most frequently recurring one being that of losing or gaining control over one's emotion, which is very much in line with Kövecses's findings. At the same time, the majority of the metaphorical expressions in my corpus give guidance on how to cope with and gain control over one's fear (in order to be more successful and more self-confident). The metaphors identified by Kövecses mostly describe subjective details of the fear experience. Because the quotations display a totally different attitude to talking about fear, it is highly understandable that metaphors such as FEAR IS A SUPERNATURAL BEING, FEAR IS A BURDEN, FEAR IS A NATURAL FORCE are not instantiated, while the metaphors FEAR IS AN OBJECT and FEAR IS AN OBSTACLE, absent from Kövecses's lists, seem to dominate my corpus.

Sidebar

Andrea Csillag is an Associate Professor in the Department of Foreign Languages of the Debrecen Reformed Theological University, Hungary. She holds a PhD in linguistics from the University of Debrecen. Her main academic interests include cognitive semantics, the language of emotions, the role of metaphor and metonymy in human cognition.

E-mail address: [email protected]

References

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