1. Introduction
The Ziziphus fruit is a valued fruit in Pakistan that aids in household income and food security. The Ziziphus species, also known as Ber, Jujube, or Desert apple, is the world’s most nutritious fruit-bearing species [1,2] and is regarded as a super fruit for the future [3]. It has sparked horticultural enthusiasm in dry regions [1,4,5]. The Ziziphus Mill. is an underutilized fruit crop that can be successfully managed in the subtropics and tropics’ marginal ecosystems of the world [6]. The Ziziphus Mill. has the potential to enhance the livelihood of local people; as well, the species of this genus simultaneously minimizes land degradation. The incomes of people can increase due to constant agricultural yield, regardless of drought, because the Ziziphus trees are drought and salinity resistant and can be cultivated in poor marginal areas [3,7].
2. Current Status of Ziziphus Species in Pakistan
Ziziphus Mill., an important genus of the Rhamnaceae family, contains over 170 species of trees and shrubs (both deciduous and evergreen) found throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world [2,3,5,8]. Ziziphus is predominantly grown in a variety of places in the world, where its fruits and leaves are widely used as food and medicine [8]. The fruits contain sugar, vitamin C, alkaloids, saponins, triterpenoids, and a variety of other nutrients [3,5,9]. In Pakistani traditional medicine, various Ziziphus taxa are frequently used to treat digestive disorders, liver diseases, blood diseases, headache, urinary infections, hypertension, diabetes, skin diseases, fever, rheumatism, pharyngitis, bronchitis, anemia, and sleeplessness, and it is also used as a tonic [5,10]. The most economically important members of this genus are Chinese date or Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) [11], and Z. mauritiana Lam. [2,5,8]. The Z. jujuba is a Chinese species that can also be found in Pakistan [8]. The Chinese jujube is believed to be evolved directly from a wild Ziziphus species, the sour jujube (Z. acidojujuba Cheng et Liu), making it an excellent source for the introduction of a wide range of beneficial qualities or attributes for jujube development [3]. Pakistani Flora (
Z. mauritiana Lam. is a popular multi-purpose tree that can grow in warm, arid places throughout the tropics. The tree can endure exceedingly arid conditions and high temperatures, making it a highly desired tree for all those who reside in an area where common fruit trees are difficult or impossible to grow [14,15]. The most common uses of Z. mauritiana are food, fodder, and medicine [16,17]. Its fruits are eaten raw or made into beverages, porridge, traditional cakes, and jam, among other things. The tree survives and produces efficiently in conditions of low rainfall and high temperatures [5]. Due to the current impact of climate change, which has resulted in the expansion of dry regions, the cultivation of Z. mauritiana could provide a solution to food insecurity and income for households in the arid and semi-arid regions of Pakistan. Furthermore, Z. mauritiana is drought and salinity durable and can thrive in poor marginal areas; household incomes can thus increase due to the ongoing fruit production, irrespective of drought [17,18]. The flowers, and fruit of Z. mauritiana is shown in Figure 1.
Similarly, Z. jujuba Mill, also known as Chinese date or Chinese jujube, is one of the oldest known fruit trees and is among the most economically, ecologically, and socially important species in the Rhamnaceae family [19]. Its cultivation and use can be traced back to prehistoric times, nearly seven thousand years ago [3,5]. The antioxidant phytochemicals saponins, polysaccharides, and flavonoids found in the fruit and seeds are thought to be responsible for jujube’s soothing properties [5]. Since its introduction into neighboring areas such as Korea, Japan, Central Asia, and Europe via the “Silk Road” 2000 years ago, commercial jujube cultivation has continued to thrive at diverse scales in China, South Korea, Iran, Israel, the United States, Italy, Australia, and other countries [3]. Jujube is becoming extremely relevant in arid and semi-arid degraded areas due to its remarkable resilience and ability to adapt to drought as well as barren and salty soil; it can be considered a super fruit for the future due to its special potential advantages [3]. In Pakistan, Z. jujuba is primarily cultivated in the northern region, along with the provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, AJ&K, and Gilgit Baltistan [8]. It is an important source of traditional herbal medicines, as well as a major dry fruit, and it provides a livelihood for thousands of farmers in Pakistan. The fruits of Z. jujuba are portrayed in Figure 2.
Moreover, Z. nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight et Arn. (wild jujube, Karkanda, Zangali bera) is a multi-purpose species highly prized for its edible fruits, fodder leaves, fencing branches, wood for fuel and furniture making, architectural value, and traditional medicine. It is found in dry and warm regions, especially in the warm northwestern plains, central Pakistan, and other dry landscapes. Drought, salinity, and temperature are just a few of the conditions that this species can withstand [2,13,20]. Deep rooting and considerable glucose stockpiles in the roots contribute to the species’ high rejuvenation potential [13]. When crops fail or hunger strikes, leading to decreased nourishment for the local inhabitants, wild plant genetic resources become especially important. Despite the obvious interest in native species for food, extra income, livestock feed, folk medicines, energy, and soil conservation, their potential to contribute to farmers’ livelihoods is underutilized and undervalued [20]. Z. nummularia deserves special attention for improvement and exploration in Pakistan due to the high nutritional value of its leaves as fodder and fruits as foods. The application of indigenous knowledge in the potential of this species in Pakistan and other semi-arid tropical regions should be considered. Figure 3 shows the Z. nummularia plant.
According to Pakistani flora, Z. rugosa is a small tree or straggler shrub with stipular spines that are single or in pairs, a broad base, and fulvous tomentose juvenile branches. The petiole is 0.8–1.5 cm long, and the leaves are 5–12.5 cm long and 4–6 cm wide, broadly elliptic, shortly acuminate, denticulate, and oblique at the base. The inflorescence is composed of pedunculate cymes with dense pubescence. The peduncle is 5 mm in length, and the pedicel is 4 mm in length.
Z. spina-christi, a medium-sized tree with extending greyish white branches that are glabrous or slightly pubescent has a vague native dispersion. It is widely cultivated for its fruit and timber and used as livestock feed, as well as for establishing a stock-proof hedge and living fence, but it is also used as a dune stabilizing agent due to its deep taproot and expanding root systems [18].
Z. oxyphylla, also known as Elanai, is a small glabrous tree with a short, recurved, uneven spine and edible fruit (oval) [21] that is widely used in folk medicine to treat ailments like diabetes [22], jaundice, liver disease [21], hypertension, and gas problems [21]. Z. oxyphylla is found primarily in the tropics and warm temperate regions of the world.
3. The Representation of the Six Ziziphus Species in Different Parts of Pakistan
Z. mauritiana is found in three provinces in Pakistan: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Karak, Bannu, Kohat, Swabi, Charsada, Swat, Peshawar, Dir, and Malakand districts), Punjab (Bahawalpur, Multan, D. G. Khan, Attock, Chakwal, and Mianwali districts), and Sindh (Multan, Nawab Shah, Hyderabad, Karachi, etc.). The Z. jujuba is primarily grown in northern Pakistan, specifically in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, AJ & K, and Gilgit Baltistan. Globally, India, Bangladesh, China (South-Central, East Himalaya, Hainan), Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and other countries are home to Z. rugosa, whereas the Z. rugosa is found in Pakistan only in Sindh province (Hyderabad) [18]. The Z. spina-christi is indigenous to Pakistan, where it can be found primarily in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan [18]. The Z. oxyphylla is found in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Swat, Buner, Dir (L), Dir (U), Malakand, Mardan) and also in Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces. Z. nummularia, is found almost in every part of Pakistan, as shown in Figure 4.
4. Important Identified Phytochemical Constituents and Medicinal Importance of Ziziphus Species
Different plants have contributed to the system of traditional and modern medicine. One of them is the Ziziphus genus of the family Rhamnaceae. Ziziphus species have antipyretic, antinociceptive, antioxidant, antibacterial, and insecticidal properties and have been used for thousands of years in medicinal systems to treat fever, diabetes, and skin problems [2,18,23,24,25]. Many investigators have isolated and identified the secondary metabolites and medicinal chemistry of species belonging to this promising genus, including triterpene acids, flavonoids, cerebrosides, amino acids, phenolic acids, microelements, vitamins, total sugars, and nucleosides [2,26,27]. According to phytochemical and pharmacological research findings, Ziziphus species (jujube fruits) are commonly used for calming the mind, enhancing immunologic functions, inhibiting tumor growth, resisting fatigue, beautifying and nourishing the face, resisting oxidation and aging, and so on [18,28]. Furthermore, according to El Maaiden et al. [29], a total of 431 chemical compounds have been identified in the Ziziphus species (including fruits, roots, leaves, and stems), of which polyphenols were isolated using various extraction methods and exhibited a wide range of biological activities.
Table 1 represents comparatively different compounds isolated from Ziziphus species, which have been widely used against different aliments; properties include anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal, antidepressant, antibacterial, acetylcholine esterase inhibitors, antidiabetic, cytotoxic, antipyretic, antinociceptive, antioxidant, and anti-cancer. In addition cyclopeptide alkaloids are used to treat various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and bacterial infection, indicating their potential use as medicinal drugs. The polyphenols of Ziziphus reduce the excessive production of free radicals within cells. These oxidative processes may reduce immunological activity and increase the risk of diabetes, contagious diseases, rheumatoid and respiratory problems, atherosclerosis, and a series of destructive mechanisms associated with aging, Alzheimer’s disease, and schizophrenia. Rich in polyphenols, Spinacetine-3-O-(2 feruloyl glucopyranosyl)-glucopyranoside, Kaempferol-3-Oglucoside-7-O-glucoside can inhibit oxidation (Table 1).
The fruits of Z. jujuba and seeds of Z. nummularia inhibited the cell proliferation of human breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and SKBR3) stimulated by estradiol, as well as human cancer cell lines MCF-7, A549, HepG2, and HT-29 [30]. Alphitolic acid compounds exhibited significant cytotoxicity against A549, PC-3, and MDA-MB-231 cells in vitro [37].
5. Ziziphus Species in the Alleviation of Household Poverty and Diseases in Arid Regions of Pakistan
Ziziphus trees are cultivated in most parts of the world, where they help to prevent soil erosion, filter and regulate the flow of fresh water, manage pests and disease, provide shelter, attract pollinators, and mitigate global warming through carbon sequestration. The Ziziphus also contribute greatly to household food security, hence lowering hunger and malnutrition in dry, arid, and semi-arid regions of Pakistan. Non-wood forest foods do not ordinarily form a complete diet, but they contribute significantly to the food supply and are especially important during crises such as drought, starvation, and conflict, particularly as a supplement to farmed items that are only available seasonally. Furthermore, plants that can thrive in arid environments while also providing food, fodder, and fuel are becoming increasingly important as many semi-arid regions of the world become desertified. Thus, the fruit trees of the genus Ziziphus are a suitable candidate as multipurpose plants with the potential for selection and application in water shortage areas of Pakistan, as shown in Figure 5.
Ziziphus is used as a hedge in many places in the world, with its spines providing good live-fencing and its very nutritious fruits providing a valuable source of energy, vitamins, and income when sold in the local markets. Additionally, extracts from the fruits, seeds, leaves, roots, and bark of Ziziphus trees are used in many traditional remedies to treat sleeplessness, skin problems, inflammatory ailments, and fever [8,38]. For these reasons, Ziziphus trees are critical to the integrated economy of the drylands in Pakistan.
The fruits of Ziziphus are commonly consumed in numerous Asian countries, including Pakistan, in fresh, dried, or processed forms [2,8,39]. Ripe fruits of several Ziziphus species are normally eaten raw in the countries of the Sub-continent, however, they are occasionally prepared. Ripe fruits are also utilized in the production of candied, dried, and powdered candied fruits [40,41]. Globally, the powder from the fruit is used in baking, jam making, and preparing a traditional loaf in various parts of Sub-Saharan Africa [42]. Ziziphus fruits are dried and processed into flour in several African countries, such as Niger, as part of a starvation diet [1,43]. During the time of famine, the flour is cooked into a cake and eaten by the inhabitants. People in drought-prone parts of Zimbabwe may be able to survive on traditional loaves. The immature fruits are salted and eaten in Southeast Asia. Prematurely green fruits are used to produce chutneys, pickles, and jellies in India [44], and jujube is also used to make a cake in China. A classic cold drink is made by crushing ripe Ziziphus fruits in water. Sun-drying ripe fruits allows them to be preserved, and flour is ready for use when they are not in the market or are out of season. The sweet, fleshy fruits and leaves of Ziziphus are used to make jujube tea in some parts of China and Pakistan. The tea is high in natural sugar and vitamins and is often used to treat everything from sore throat to anemia [45].
In most parts of Pakistan, Ziziphus species are not cultivated commercially, and the fruits are collected from trees growing in residential neighborhoods and even in the wild. In Pakistan, the trade of Ziziphus fruit is still limited to local markets and is controlled by rural communities. While this business is well-organized in China, farmers and dealers of jujube fruits can increase their profits by selling the fruits shown in Figure 6.
6. Production of Ziziphus Fruit in Pakistan
Farmers in Pakistan cultivate Ziziphus Mill, particularly Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba, for their nutritious fruit. Although productivity is limited due to the native cultivar’s small fruit size and vulnerability to parasite outbreaks. The Ziziphus species is one of the most valuable to farmers among other fruit crops. The major product of the Ziziphus tree is the fruit pulp, which can be consumed fresh or dried and turned into juice [3,18]. The leaves, roots, and bark are also used as fodder, which has therapeutic properties [18]. Handles, household items, fuel, and charcoal are all made from the wood of the Ziziphus species [8]. During the dry season, it is often planted as a living fence alongside other tree and shrub species to protect crops and vegetables from animal grazing. The Ziziphus is one of the most commonly utilized plants in agroforestry systems for soil maintenance and protection, notably in the arid lands of southern Pakistan [5].
Nowadays, the Ziziphus jujuba Mill. is one of the most cultivated fruit species, the most widely produced fresh and dried fruit among other Ziziphus species, and the primary source of income for 20 million Asian farmers [3,8]. The production figures for all the species of Ziziphus are not available in Pakistan. The most economically important species of Ziziphus are Z. jujuba and Z. mauritiana. In Pakistan, the cultivation and productivity of these two species (Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba) are quite reasonable; Z. mauritiana is cultivated in approximately 5.425 thousand ha, with an annual production of 28 thousand tons [17,18]. China is the world’s leading producer of jujube (Z. jujuba) fresh fruit. In China, the Z. jujuba is cultivated in an approximately 2 million ha area [3]. Furthermore, China produces nearly 8.5 million tons annually. On the other hand, Z. jujuba, is mostly cultivated on roughly 2000 ha of land in northern Pakistan, including Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, AJ&K, and Gilgit Baltistan, with an annual production of 10 thousand tons. The farming and production of these economically important species can become good sources of income for the people living in the arid and semi-arid regions of Pakistan.
7. Production and Fruit Processing-Related Problems
Commercial production of Ziziphus species has significantly increased in various parts of Pakistan due to its high productivity, nutritive quality, and high market demand. However, according to some recent reports, the commercial Ziziphus yields and productivity are declining due to known and unknown factors, one of which is thought to be insect pests. From germination to harvest, thirteen insect pests are known to attack Ziziphus species and cause leaf destruction [46,47]. Pests found on Ziziphus fruit trees include the fruit fly (Bactrocera zonata), mealybug (Ferrisia virgata Cockerell), bark-eating caterpillar (Indarbela quadrinotata), jujube leaf roller (Ancylis sativa Liu), weevil (Amblyrrhinus poricollis), fruit borer (Meridarchis scyrodes), thrip (Scirtothrips dorsalis), aphid (Aphidoidea species), and leaf grasshopper (Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai) [46,48]. These pests not only wreak havoc on fruit, but they also have an impact on the quality and quantity of Ziziphus species’ fruits [49]. Among all of these insect pests, the hairy caterpillar (Euproctis fraterna Moore) is a major Ziziphus pest [46,47]. Furthermore, the Alternaria alternata is a causing agent of jujube fruit shrink disease (JFSD), is common in Pakistani jujube cultivars, and is one of the restricting factors that directly affects production and leads to massive losses in crop yield (Figure 7). According to some authors, jujube fruit shrink disease is caused by several infections and frequently results in severe yield losses of up to 30%, as well as a significant decline in the market value of fruit due to bitter pulp and pre-drop [50,51].
Another problem is fruit cracking, which is a major impediment to the development of the Ziziphus fruit industry; it is closely related to the allocation of the wax layer on the fruit’s surface [52]. Fruit cracking has become a serious issue because it degrades the appearance of jujube fruits and increases the likelihood of microbial infections, both of which result in considerable losses in fruit quality and productivity [53]. In terms of Chinese jujube output, yield losses due to fruit cracking range from around 30% in normal years to more than 90% in severe years [53,54]. Systematic research is required to determine the key reasons and solution for the cracking of Ziziphus fruit.
Furthermore, the thin peel, crisp texture, tasty flesh, and nutritional properties of Ziziphus and their fruits, typically consumed as fresh, have received much interest among consumers [55,56]. After harvesting, the fruits begin to ripen in the green-golden-yellow stage. Ber fruit ripens with a color change from green or golden-yellow to red or red-brown, with the best quality at the green-mature or green-yellowish stage [57]. This fruit has a short storage life, which poses a significant challenge in establishing its market [57,58,59]. In other words, postharvest handling and transportation reduce postharvest life, and keeping fruit in storage is no longer a viable option [49,57]. Fresh fruits of Ziziphus deteriorate quickly and cannot be kept for more than 10 days at room temperature without severe degradation [60,61]. To keep or sustain ber fruit quality during transportation and storage of the fresh harvest, suitable post-harvest procedures and treatments must be developed.
The fruit is highly seasonal and decays quickly due to the effects of several physiological abnormalities, including fermentation process, water loss, and skin-softening [56]. Softening and decline of hardness are the most important factors affecting the rate of postharvest, deteriorating jujube fruit. These can contribute to poor textural properties, consumer refusal, and financial loss. The principal reason for fruit softening is the pioneer decompression of the primary cell wall structure and components, such as pectin substances, hemicellulose, and cellulose, which are depolymerized by cell wall hydrolases [62]. Furthermore, the cellulase enzyme is widely thought to be responsible for the deterioration of the cellulose mixture in fruit cell walls [63].
8. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Ziziphus is a promising fruit crop in arid and semi-arid regions. It could be efficiently and successfully cultivated for food security and poverty reduction in marginal ecosystems of Pakistan. The Ziziphus species can withstand extremely dry environments, extremely high temperatures, saline soils, and waterlogging. They can be used for a wide range of purposes, including medicinal purposes, animal fodder, nectar blossoms, furniture, poles for various purposes, and a multitude of other things. Their fruit can be eaten raw, dried, or fresh and can also be used to make traditional cakes, cookies, and other baked goods. These foods are extremely nutrient-dense. The tree helps to prevent land degradation by growing in harsh environments where other tree species could suffer and die. Ziziphus Mill. may be a viable alternative source of income for people living in arid and semi-arid environments in Pakistan. Improvement in the productivity and cultivation of Ziziphus species can increase the income of the community residing in these dry regions. Even though the Ziziphus Mill. is widely distributed in Pakistan, particularly in northern and southern parts of the country such as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan [8,12], low yield and production are due to biotic or abiotic stresses, as well as selection strategies for developing cultivars. The farmers usually apply traditional farming practices and grow cultivars having small tiny fruits, and they are usually susceptible to diseases [8,12]. For yield enhancement, the genotypes of Ziziphus species possessing all types of desirable traits and characteristics should be selected for cultivation.
In addition, Ziziphus has huge potential as an income and nutritional crop, particularly in the arid regions of Pakistan, and it requires government policy to support the cultivation of these species. The evaluation and selection of superior genotypes or cultivars in Ziziphus Mill using various scientific methodologies should be regarded as a major research topic throughout the country. There is approximately 1000 Chinese jujube (Z. jujuba) cultivars, the majority of which are available commercially in China; only a few dozen are available in the markets of Pakistan. As a result, broad-based collaboration is required at both the national and international levels to facilitate the introduction of improved varieties/cultivars into the country or to different regions within the country, especially in the arid and semi-arid regions of Pakistan.
Furthermore, molecular studies should be conducted on Pakistani Ziziphus Mill. to determine the species’ most likely origin and to locate centers of diversity to help lead conservation programs. They should also determine the number of viable populations in national parks and other protected natural areas. The discovery of seed management strategies is also important to boost the chances of ex situ conservation. It may also be beneficial to examine or investigate the genetic variation in Ziziphus species found in these locations as well as the determination of genotypes having significant diverse characteristics in terms of drought resistance, tree growth, and fruit yield. Analysis of pollinator species, pollen flow efficiency, and pollinator threats should be carried out.
The Ziziphus species deserves special consideration for identification and germplasm selection for potential use as fodder and food in Pakistan’s water-deficient areas. Systematic research and observational study are required to identify promising material from diversity-rich places such as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan to expose varieties with larger leaves and bigger fruit types. It would also be beneficial to identify and cultivate the viable forages and food genotypes of Ziziphus. For this purpose, the collection of germplasms, cultivars, and varieties from various locations in Pakistan and abroad should be considered. Furthermore, reporting of the genetic and sociocultural variability of Ziziphus species or cultivars is an important step toward promoting the protracted conservation and utilization of this arid-adapted species in Pakistan. These measures, which meet the goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity, will be especially beneficial to poorer people, who rely on locally underutilized species like Ziziphus for survival in harsh conditions, a situation worsened by climate change in Pakistan.
Further research should be carried out at the molecular level to address the problems of fruit cracking in Ziziphus Mill. This will ultimately help increase the shelf life of fruit. Fruit softening is another problem that decreases the storage life of Ziziphus fruit and other economically important fruit as well. In this regard, careful studies on softening-related changes in cell wall–demeaning enzymatic activities have been carried out in a variety of fruits, including nectarines [64], strawberries [65], avocados [66], and Chinese jujube “Dongzao” [56] to better understand the function of enzyme manipulation in cell wall deteriorating and fruit loosening. Following these studies as examples can help to find the key softening-related factors of Ziziphus fruit in Pakistan. Despite this, given the various processes by which fruit softens at various ripening stages and/or cultivars of Ziziphus species, it is still crucial to examine the particular cell wall procedures related to Ziziphus fruit softening.
Due to the obvious lack of processing and handling technologies, as well as marketing opportunities in Pakistan, the input of indigenous fruits like the Ziziphus species is restricted to regions where the trees grow naturally. Ziziphus fruits are high in vitamins A and C, as well as other minerals. Since these fruits have a short shelf life, effective measures are necessary to keep their postharvest quality, which will not only improve the postharvest life but can also play a key role in marketing by supplying Ziziphus (ber/jujube) fruit to remote parts of the country. Ziziphus fruit storage procedures, such as thermal treatment, edible films, and modified atmosphere packing, have received attention. However, the majority of these techniques are costly and time-consuming. As a result, there is an urgent need for alternate techniques to prevent unwanted physicochemical and physiological changes during storage.
Similarly, the application of modern farming technology in the Ziziphus orchards is also very important; for example, agricultural robots automate agricultural processes of fruit picking, fruit harvesting, soil maintenance, plowing, planting, and many more. By applying this technology, farmers will gain more profits and will also be able to increase the productivity of Ziziphus yields.
Moreover, different chemicals and compounds have been isolated from Ziziphus species; however, the mechanisms of action and clinical applications of plants in the genus Ziziphus have been poorly studied, and critical information on their toxicity is lacking. An in-depth study is also required in this case.
N.M. wrote this article, and Z.L. (Zhi Luo), M.Y., Z.L. (Zhiguo Liu) and M.L. revised this article and made valuable comments. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. The flowers and fruits of red color cultivars of Z. mauritiana. This picture of Z. mauritiana with red color fruits and flowers was originally taken from a Z. mauritiana tree growing in Gora Gat, Dir Lower, KP, Pakistan.
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Map of Pakistan representing the locality of different Ziziphus species. The picture was taken from Google Earth and has been edited manually. These different colors show the localities of the six mentioned Ziziphus species found in Pakistan.
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. The representation of the Ziziphus species in Pakistan and the potential role in human life and livelihood in the arid and semi-arid regions of Pakistan.
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. The packing of Ziziphus fruit: (A) the processed and fresh fruit of Z. jujuba; (B) the fresh fruit of the green cultivar Z. mauritiana.
Different isolated phenolic compounds from previous studies of Ziziphus species.
| No. | Polyphenols | Z. jujuba | Z. nummularia | Z. oxyphylla | Z. mauritiana | Z. spana-charti | Z. rugosa | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Gallic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 2 | Gallic acid derivative | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 3 | Ellagic acid derivative | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 4 | Catechin | + | N/A | + | N/A | + | + | [ |
| 5 | Anthocyanin | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 6 | Epicatechin | + | N/A | N/A | + | + | [ |
|
| 7 | Caffeic acid hexoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 8 | 5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 9 | Quercetin 3-rutinoside | + | + | + | + | N/A | + | [ |
| 10 | Qurecetin-3-D-galactoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 11 | p-Hydroxybenzoyl hexose | + | + | + | + | + | N/A | [ |
| 12 | Proanthocyanidin B1 | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 13 | Luteolin-7-O-glucoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 14 | p-Coumaric acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 15 | Salicylic acid | + | N/A | N/A | + | N/A | + | [ |
| 16 | Cinamic acid derivative | + | N/A | N/A | + | + | N/A | [ |
| 17 | Ellagic acid pentoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 18 | Caffeic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 19 | Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside-7-O-glucoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 20 | Quercetin derivative | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 21 | Chlorogenic acid | + | + | N/A | + | + | + | [ |
| 22 | Quercetin | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 23 | Morin | + | + | + | + | N/A | + | [ |
| 24 | Rutin | N/A | + | + | N/A | + | N/A | [ |
| 25 | Pyrogallol | + | + | N/A | + | + | N/A | [ |
| 26 | Mandelic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 27 | Mandelic acid | N/A | + | + | + | N/A | + | [ |
| 28 | Hydroxy benzoic acid | N/A | N/A | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 29 | Vanillic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 30 | Syringic acid | + | + | + | N/A | + | + | [ |
| 31 | Ferulic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 32 | Sinapic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 33 | Naringin | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 34 | Rosmarinic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 35 | Hyperin | N/A | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 36 | Avicularoside | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 37 | Resveratrol | + | N/A | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 38 | Anthocyanin | + | + | + | N/A | + | + | [ |
| 39 | Epicatechin | N/A | + | N/A | + | + | + | [ |
| 40 | Citronellol | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | + | [ |
| 41 | α-bisabolol | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | + | [ |
| 42 | Linalool | + | + | N/A | N/A | + | + | [ |
| 43 | Zizyberenalic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 44 | Azelin | N/A | + | + | N/A | N/A | + | [ |
| 45 | Euscaphic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 46 | Betulinic acid | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 47 | Betulinic aldehyde | + | + | + | + | + | + | [ |
| 48 | e nummularine-C- | N/A | + | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | |
| 49 | Ziziphine-A type | + | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | [ |
| 50 | Alphitolic acid | + | + | + | N/A | N/A | + | [ |
References
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; Luo, Zhi 1 ; Yang, Meng 1 ; Liu, Zhiguo 1 ; Liu, Mengjun 2 1 College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China; Research Center of Chinese Jujube, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China
2 College of Horticulture, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China; Research Center of Chinese Jujube, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding 071001, China; Beijing Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environmental Improvement with Forestry and Fruit Trees, Beijing 102206, China