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Neither Man Nor Woman: The Hijras of India. By Serena Nanda. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California, 1990, 170 pp., $23.95.
Reviewed by Froukje M. E. Slijper, PhD.2
The hijras are a religious community of men who dress and act like women and whose culture centers on the worship of Bahuchara Mata, one of the many versions of the Mother Goddess worshipped throughout India. In connection with the worship of this goddess, the hijras undergo an operation in which their genitals are removed. The hijra emasculation operation is a ritual and consists of the surgical removal of the penis and testicles. The emasculation ritual is performed by a dai ma (midwife) who has no medical training. The dai ma is a hijra, often a guru (leader), who believes she operates with the power of the Mata so that the result is not in her hands. The nirvan (the one who is operated on) is in a state of trance during the emasculation operation so that he does not experience any pain. The operation is life-threatening and forbidden by Indian law. Because the operation is illegal and is always done in secret, there is no way to know how many hijras die as a result. Urinary tract infections are one of the most serious physical complications of the operation. The author was not allowed to witness an operation but has seen many results of the operation. The material in Nanda's book is based on tape-recorded narratives and conversations with at least 20 hijras, mainly from the three largest households in Bastipore. She also spoke to hijras who lived by themselves or with men they called their husbands. The data were collected in 19811982 during a stay of 8 months and return visits to India in 1985 and 1986. Because the hijras are often hostile to outsiders, from whom they frequently receive abuse, ridicule, or prurient curiosity, it was not easy for Nanda to get into contact with them and win their confidence. She started with hijras who were willing to talk with her and through them made contact with other hijras. Although the data collection could not be systematic, in view of the difficult circumstances, we should be grateful to the author for providing us with such...