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INTRODUCTION
It is almost mandatory in any writing about military Psychological Operations (PSYOPS) to begin with the quote from Sun Tzu, the ancient Chinese military strategist, that 'to subdue the enemy without resort to force is the acme of skill'. The history of mankind, however, is replete with conflicts where this did not occur. In a sense, Sun Tzu was talking about deterrence. But when nations go to war because deterrence has failed, or because they wanted to pursue their national interests by force, they have to use any and every weapon at their disposal in order to win -- and this includes psychological weapons targeting the full range of human perception that attempt to change perception and behaviour on the battlefield and beyond. These 'munitions of the mind' may have become ever more sophisticated in their application and methods of dissemination but they have always had one thing in common: they are directed at human beings.
THE 'P' WORD
What we are essentially talking about is 'propaganda', which nowadays tends to be regarded as a dirty word. It was not, however, always a pejorative term. Invented by the Catholic Church in the 17th century to describe an organisation designed to combat the growth of Protestantism, propaganda was initially about the sowing of ideas and values -- and it was about faith. In particular, it was about faith in institutions and the people who ran them in accordance with 'God's Laws'. In ancient times, before the advent of Christianity, commanders like Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar understood all too well the need not only to motivate their soldiers to fight but also to sustain popular support for military campaigns being fought by fathers, brothers and sons who could only be away from the land they farmed until Harvest time. Ancient battles were therefore short, brutal, seasonal affairs and victory was the subject of great celebration in public monuments, art, sculpture, re-enactments and ceremonies. Battlefields were places where people (men) made their place in history, and performance on them influenced the ability to better oneself in society or, in wars where religion was a major factor, in the afterlife.
THE ART AND SCIENCE OF PROPAGANDA
Until the 20th century and the age of industrialised...