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Studies of Islam in Senegal have long focused on Sufi brotherhoods (see Coulon 1981; Cruise O'Brien 1971; Cruise O'Brien and Coulon 1988; Robinson and Triaud 1997) and recently shifted to the discussion of reformist groups (see Loimeier 2000, 2003; Villalón 2004). These studies are mostly political and economic in orientation. The esoteric aspect of Islam in Senegal, such as the production of gris-gris (amulets), remains understudied.
Islamic esoteric knowledge includes notably istikhara dream interpretations (Arabic: to seek/consult), khalwah prayer sessions (Arabic: retreat), Arabic numerology and astrology, as well as khan ar-raml divination sessions (Arabic: writing in sand). Khatt ar-raml is documented in virtually every region of Africa (and Europe and the Arabian Peninsula) where Islam has penetrated. Although several Muslim scholars have challenged the Islamic legitimacy of the system, it is identified by both its practitioners and their clients as being a Muslim form of divination (Brenner 2000: 15). In Wolof, the local language most used in Dakar, the above-mentioned services are often called liguée ('work'). Among French-speaking elite 'modernists' and 'secularists' in West Africa, the term maraboutage, introduced in colonial times, has become current. It has a negative connotation, however, associated with 'heterodox' practices that exploit the gullible and the ignorant (Soares 2005: 129). I shall therefore use the encompassing term esoteric knowledge for the above-mentioned services in this article. In this respect, I follow Soares: 'the term "esoteric sciences" is a convenient way to discuss . . . various practices ... as there appears to be no universally accepted local or regional term that covers all of the kinds of knowledges and practices that can be included under this rubric' (Soares 2005: 127).
Considering the centrality of esoteric practices in the everyday life of West African Muslims, as well as its importance in politics and economics, its neglect by academic researchers is remarkable. These practices are all the more important because they are a local expression of Islam that is not confined to West Africa. Amulets are produced in vast quantities in Senegal and exported to Saudi Arabia where they enjoy great popularity among the population (Loimeier 2003: 245). Furthermore, experts in esoteric Islamic knowledge - commonly called 'marabouts' -travel between West Africa and Europe, the United States and Asia. They offer...