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This study seeks to update understanding of how sports in U.S. society are viewed in light of gender norms. A survey of 340 college students found that even youth who have grown up with Title IX still rate most sports as masculine, including the newer action sports even though these sports incorporate elements considered generally feminine. The study also examined the relationship between media use, sports participation, and gender role socialization with the typing of sports as masculine or feminine; although these factors seemed to impact typing for some sports by degrees, overall findings suggest that traditional gender-typing of sports is resilient. Using Bandura's (1986) social learning theory, the authors suggest that until mediated images are more inclusive of women in a variety of sports, rising participation rates by women in sports and fitness activities will do little to change traditional gender-typing.
Although the experiences of millions of girls and women in the United States indicate the contrary, research demonstrates that media consistently, and across all platforms, present sports as the purview of men (Duncan & Sayaovong, 1990; Hardin, Lynn, Walsdorf, & Hardin, 2002; Pedersen, 2002). Numerous studies have demonstrated that female athletes have been vastly underrepresented in media coverage (Bernstein, 2002; Pedersen, 2002). The reason for this could be mat the most popular spectator sports in the United States are those considered masculine (Messner, 2002). Yet, since the passage of Title LX in 1972, the movement of girls and women into many sports that are not considered "feminine" has been phenomenal. Girls and women participate in virtually every type of sport, even those used to showcase the ultimate in hegemonic masculinity; several professional women's football leagues have operated in the United States since 2000 (About NWFA, n.d. ; Associated Press, 2007).
Inclusion of more women than ever reflects changing values about their athletic aptitude. It seems logical to ask: Have perceptions of sports progressed in ways that mirror participation? In addition, participation in and media coverage of action sports has grown dramatically since earlier studies have examined attitudes toward gender-appropriate1 sports. Men and women alike are competing in sports such as snowboarding, wakeboarding, and skateboarding - and sports broadcasters are mere to capture the action.
Because of these trends, this study updates research...