1. Introduction
Economic expansion is directly linked to rising energy consumption and its environmental impacts. In 2021, global energy-related CO2 emissions reached 36.3 Gt CO2, with a rise of 6%, the largest annual increase in history [1]. The world may encounter a rise in temperature ranging from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century owing to climate change [2]. As per the report published by the World Metrological Organization in May 2023, the average global temperature in the year 2022 was about 1.15 °C above the average reported in 1850–1900. Besides the increase in temperature, other important global impacts of climate change are environmental changes such as melting polar ice caps and rising sea levels [3]. The continuous exploitation of non-renewable sources of energy has an impact on climate change, which has led to the exploration of renewable resources through various innovations to meet energy needs. And, to achieve the set targets by 2050, global leaders in the COP26 agreement are determined to slow down climate change and achieve net zero emissions. In consonance with the global community, India is also committed to transitioning to a low-carbon economy and increasing the share of renewable energy in meeting its energy requirements. Among all other renewable resources, biomass is an excellent option for harnessing energy in terms of its vast variety, cheaper costs, non-competitiveness with food or other necessary resources, abundant availability, almost even distribution throughout the country, considerable energy content, etc. The conversion of biomass to bioenergy can provide several benefits including less dependency on fuel import, waste management, generation of employment, increased income of the associated farmers, a clean environment, better infrastructural developments in the rural areas, and health benefits to the society. It has been estimated that almost 32% of the total primary energy utilized in the country is generated from biomass [4]. Despite its widespread utility as an energy source, biomass poses certain challenges such as stubble burning, supply chain bottlenecks, lack of accurate data on biomass availability, and limited biomass trading and storage options [5].
2. Biomass Availability in India
India ranks first in terms of population, having approx. 17.76% of the world’s population. The rate of urbanization is increasing very fast and presently, 35% of the Indian population is in the urban area [6,7]. The trend of Indian population growth contributes to increasing levels of biowaste per year, including agricultural residues, municipal solid waste, kitchen waste, industrial waste, etc., and hence, the vast potential for its conversion into bioenergy.
2.1. Agricultural-Based Biomass
India is an agricultural powerhouse, having a net sown area of about 139.3 Mha (42.4%) from a total geographical area of 328.7 million hectares (Mha). Further, 54.6% of the total workforce of India is reported to be engaged in agricultural and allied sectors and accounts for 17.8% of the country’s Gross Value Added [8]. The report also revealed that the total cropping area of major food grains, viz., rice, wheat, nutri/coarse cereals, and pulses, was about 129.34 Mha, having net production of 308.65 million tons (Mt). Moreover, for oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, and jute/mesta, the individual cropping areas were 28.79, 4.86, 13.01, and 0.67 Mha, respectively, with a production of 36.10, 399.25, 35.38, and 9.56 Mt, respectively (Table 1). Therefore, besides strengthening the country’s economy, agriculture is the major source of biomass production in India [8,9].
Rice cropping utilizes the highest cultivation area (34%). Wheat, pulses, and maize are grown in 23%, 22%, and 7% of the total cropping area in the country, respectively [10]. Besides these, oil crops are also grown in 15% of the total cultivated area. Among these, soybean, rapeseed, and groundnut are the dominant crops, occupying 35%, 22%, and 18% of the oil crop area, respectively. The other miscellaneous oil crops (viz., sesame seed and sunflower seed) also utilize 24% of the total oil crop area. Vegetables (including spices and melons) and fruits account for 7% of the crop area. The top three fruits, on an area basis, are mangos (37%), bananas (13%), and citrus (12%). Further, the dominant vegetables on an area basis are onions (15%), tomatoes (11%), and eggplants (9%). Fiber plants, mostly for cotton production, take up a significant part of the crop area (7%). Starchy roots, dominated by potato production, account for 1–2% of the crop area. Sugar crops, dominated by sugar cane, take up 2–3% of the crop area. Other crops, like tree nuts, represent only smaller fractions of the harvested agricultural area [10]. All these crops contributed to the generation of India’s crop waste output and are estimated to grow at a rate of 2.53% annually. It has been further estimated that bananas will contribute the most in generating crop residues followed by sugarcane and coconut by 2030. Moreover, it is calculated that approx. 71 Mt of crop residues should be available for biofuel production without impacting other needs [11].
Presently, India produces about 990 MMT of agricultural biomass annually, which is the second highest after China; however, the surplus biomass availability is about 230 MMT. Some portion of the generated biomass is utilized in conventional applications such as combustion as fuel, packaging, pulp, paper, and fiber. However, a major proportion of this biomass is reported to be decomposed or burnt in an uncontrolled manner [12]. This causes a significant reduction in surplus biomass availability. From this perspective, channeling the surplus biomass for power generation is very crucial and the need of the hour.
Model for Sustainable Use of Agricultural Biomass
There are some mathematical designs or models that have been proposed by some scientific groups for the sustainable use of agricultural biomass for energy needs and for soil fertilization, livestock nutrition, and mat for livestock, that is, for industrial needs. A multi-echelon, multi-objective model was developed by Bijarchiyan et al. [13] to design a sustainable supply chain for bioenergy generation through the anaerobic digestion process. Škrbić et al. [14] analyzed the degree of utilization of agricultural biomass for energy purposes in order to indicate the reasons that limit its use. Milićević et al. [15,16] developed a mathematical model for co-firing pulverized coal and biomass in the experimental furnace. This model might be a good basis for further research of co-combustion processes and able to provide an analysis of a wide range of pulverized fuels, i.e., coal and biomass, for energy generation. The mentioned research studies significantly contribute to the establishment of genuine mathematical models based on multiple linear regression for efficient utilization of the available biomass for energy. A suitable model can be applied for the utilization of surplus agricultural biomass for energy conversion in India.
2.2. Municipal-Waste-Based Biomass
India possesses a huge potential for energy production using municipal waste (MW) as it is generated in colossal amounts and disposed of in local landfill sites with minimal management practices. It has been reported that India generates about 160,038.9 tons per day (TPD) of municipal solid waste [17,18], of which, 50–80% of the plastic materials, 30–60% of the paper garbage, and almost 100% of the glass materials can be recycled [7]. A total of 95% of the daily waste in India is collected by various strategies. Further, about 79,956.3 TPD of the waste is treated by different methods, while 29,427.2 TPD of waste is landfilled [18]. Moreover, for the urban areas, it is predicted to reach up to 161 thousand tons per year in the next twenty years [19] (Figure 1). The per capita solid waste generation rate in India is approx. 370 g per day which is less than other countries, viz., Denmark (2200 g per day), the USA (2000 g per day), and China (700 g per day) [7,20]. Besides these, the wastewater generation in India is approx. 111,972 million liters per day (MLD), along with 72,368 MLD of sewage. The garbage generation rate in India is estimated to increase at a rate of 1.3% annually. The major contributors to this are compostable materials (food waste and fruit and vegetable peels); recyclable materials (plastic, metals, paper, and glass); hazardous materials (e-waste, batteries, paints, outdated medicines, and agrochemicals) and other items (sanitary napkins, blood-stained cotton, syringes, and tissues). Recently, the government has increased the target of managing municipal solid waste (MSW) by developing new MSW facilities under the Swachh Bharat Mission—Urban, phase 2 (SBM-U 2.0) [21,22] (Table 2).
2.3. Forest-Based Biomass
The forests are considered a major carbon sink in terrestrial ecosystems. They absorbed atmospheric carbon with the help of photosynthesis and convert it into biomass including living plant parts, dead wood, or decomposed portions. The forest ecosystem consists of five major carbon pools, i.e., above-ground biomass carbon (AGBC), below-ground biomass carbon (BGBC), soil carbon, leaf litter carbon, and dead and debris carbon. The sum of these five carbon pools is termed the ecosystem carbon stock.
India possesses 71 Mha of forests, which cover 21.71% of the country’s total geographical area [23]. Moreover, 0.22% of forest cover is reported to increase annually. Among these, dry deciduous, moist deciduous, and semi-evergreen forests from the tropical regions are the major ones representing 42%, 20%, and 14% of the total forest area, respectively. About 62% of the forests is classified as semi-natural and 23% is natural and undisturbed by man. The remaining 15% concerns planted forests.
The largest forest covers are found in Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh Chhattisgarh, and Odisha. A significant part of the Indian forest (58%) is fully protected by the government with minimal human interference. Further, 29% of the total forest area is marked for biodiversity conservation and 16% for water and soil protection. Similarly, 25% of the total forest area is identified for bioenergy and wood fiber production. The remaining 30% has been designated for multiple uses.
The northeastern region of India is endowed with rich forest diversity (Figure 2). Despite constituting only 8% of the India’s geographical area, the northeastern region harbors 25% of the national forest area. Among these, Mizoram State possesses the highest fraction of forests, i.e., 84.53% of its geographical area. It is followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, and Nagaland States with 79.33%, 76%, 74.34%, and 73.90% of the forest cover in their geographical area. These regions possess high biodiversity and species richness and are collectively included in the world’s biodiversity hotspots.
Bamboo is an important non-wood forest resource found in the forest as well as non-forested areas. As per the official website of the National Bamboo Mission [24], it covers a 13.96-million-hectare area with 136 species in India [24,25]. India is home to 11 exotic and 125 indigenous bamboo species that belong to 23 genera and therefore, is the second richest country after China in terms of bamboo genetic resources. Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh are the main bamboo bearing states. In forest ecosystems, the maximum carbon stock is held by the soil followed by above-ground biomass. However, in some cases, the above-ground biomass carbon is higher than the soil carbon stock. The estimated carbon stock of the Indian forests for 2021 was 7204.0 Mt with an increase of 79.4 Mt from the last assessment [23]. Arunachal Pradesh is reported to have the highest forest carbon stock followed by Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra. This report also revealed that soil organic carbon is the main reservoir for forest carbon. The other sources are above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass, litter, and dead wood [26]. The SAHYOG inventory, a survey of the biomass sources of India, found that the forests and forest products are very difficult to be considered as a resource for any biomass conversion applications [27].
However, the combination of forest management and afforestation can function simultaneously to enhance forest biomass for bioenergy purposes in the future.
2.4. Industry-Based Biomass
Industrial biomass includes garbage, refuse, and other discarded or salvageable materials including solid, liquid, and semi-solid materials. The sugar and food industries are the main sources of industrially generated biomass in India [28,29]. However, the leather, food processing, and textiles industries, may also contribute to biomass generation in the country but there are no proper records from authenticated sources. Similarly, no official record is available for the waste residues generated from woodworking, the furniture industry, the pulp and paper industry, post-consumer recycled wood, and sawmilling, as the information is either limited to local sources or to the small- or medium-scale industries under which these wastes are generated. Most of the data are from unauthenticated sources and proper documentation through secondary data is not available.
2.5. Aquatic Biomass
Algae are receiving tremendous attention as a potential source of biomass for renewable energy production [30,31]. The unique features of algae are their ability to produce a high amount of biomass (up to 280 t/ha annually), along with a higher oil production potential (up to 30 t/ha annually). Furthermore, they can be grown in wastewater without many external inputs which reduces the production cost to very large extent [32].
Algae are photoautotrophs that depend upon sunlight for photosynthesis and thus their growth and development. Warm regions that are nearer to the equator (with an insolation of more than 3000 h/y) can achieve higher biomass yield from algae due to higher and better exposure to solar radiation. In this perspective, Rajasthan and Gujarat States of India have a better prospect for algal growth. Nowadays, high-rate algal ponds are used for the dual purposes of wastewater treatment and biofuel production [33]. Furthermore, algal lipid components are made up of a good amount of freely available fatty acids, glycolipids, phospholipids, and triglycerides. Thus, it can be developed as an eco-friendly and cost-effective alternative to conventional fuels. Various pilot projects are ongoing in the country for biofuel production from algae. Reliance Industries Ltd. of India has been successfully running large algae raceway ponds at Jamnagar for producing algal biomass for bio-oil generation [34]. Aquatic plants can also be considered as a source of biomass for bioenergy production, viz., water chestnut [35] salvinia [36], and giant reed [37]. Recently, Bray et al. [38] investigated the potential of Indian water hyacinth (Pistia stratiotes) as a biomass source for anaerobic digestion. However, the exact estimation of the large-scale conversion of this aquatic biomass to bioenergy is not available.
3. Bioenergy Conversion Process for Biomass
Biomass is converted into energy using diverse technologies, viz., thermal conversion techniques (combustion, pyrolysis, hydrothermal liquefaction, and biomass gasification processes), bioconversion (fermentation and anaerobic digestion), and chemical conversion technique (transesterification, hydroprocessing technology) [39,40,41]. Further, the production of high-value-added bioproducts coupled with renewable energy generation is an integrated biorefinery approach. In biorefineries, various bio-based products such as chemicals (succinic acid, ethanol, sorbitol, 2,5-furan-dicarboxylic acid, lactic acid, glutamic acid, levulinic acid, aspartic acid, and aldehydes) and biopolymers (polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoate, bio-ethylene, thermoplastic, and starch) are being generated through various routes during the conversion processes by utilizing biomass [42,43].
3.1. Thermal Conversion Technologies
The process of thermal conversion entails subjecting the biomass to high temperatures, causing the breakdown of its bonds. A significant advantage of this method is that it destroys pathogens, reduces emissions, requires less conversion time, and allows for the recovery of nutrients. Thermal conversion is ideal for large-scale bioenergy production as it can convert large amounts of biomass into various fuels and by-products, making it highly flexible [44].
3.1.1. Combustion
Combustion is a chemical process that consists of consecutive homogeneous and heterogeneous chemical reactions. The general combustion of biomass produces heat; however, electricity can also be produced from the combustion of biomass. The main steps involved in the combustion of biomass are drying, heating, gasification, char combustion, devolatilization, and gas-phase oxidation. Biomass combustion technology is the most common route for power generation, working just like coal in a thermal plant, through steam generation and thus operating a turbine. This steam turbine when fully condensed produces power through its exhaust. The size of such plants is generally ten times smaller (from 1 to 100 MW) than the conventional coal-fired combustion plants owing to the limited availability of local feedstock and costly transportation [45]. The program of biomass combustion for power generation has even more recent origins. It began in late 1994 as a pilot program, with the approval of two 5 MW projects [46]. Indian sugar industries are already practicing co-generation techniques by utilizing bagasse. They are estimated to produce 80 Kilo Watt per hour (kWh) more electricity from each ton of crushed sugarcane material by improving the process parameters, i.e., temperature and pressure [45,47]. Furthermore, de-oiled cakes, cotton stalks, coconut shells, rice husk, straw, soya husk, sawdust, coffee waste, groundnut shells, and jute wastes are also utilized for power generation. As of December 2020, the total installed capacity of biomass power/bagasse co-generation was 10,145.92 MW and as of October 2022, its total capacity increased to 10,205.61 MW [47]. Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka are the major states to implement bagasse co-generation projects. Similarly, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, and Gujarat are leading states in the biomass power projects in India (Figure 3).
3.1.2. Torrefaction and Pyrolysis
Torrefaction is a thermal process that involves heating biomass in the absence of oxygen to a temperature of 200–300 °C. This process is typically used to improve the properties of biomass as a fuel for energy production [48,49]. During torrefaction, the biomass undergoes chemical and physical changes that result in a material that is more energy-dense, more hydrophobic (water-resistant), and more stable than untreated biomass. The process removes moisture and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which reduces the risk of spontaneous combustion and improves the energy content of the fuel. This technique is commonly used to prepare biomass for use in co-firing with coal in power plants, as a replacement for coal in some applications, or for use in bioenergy production systems such as gasification or combustion [50]. In India, the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) has been a pioneer in co-firing biomass in its coal power plants. As per a media report on biomass co-firing, NTPC is strengthening the entire biomass sector value chain in various dimensions. Many NTPC plants have already started utilizing coal with co-firing biomass pellets [51]. Recently, the Ministry of Power (MoP) has set up a national mission (Mission SAMARTH) for utilizing biomass pellets in thermal power plants. They have mandated using 5–10% biomass co-firing in all the traditionally operated coal-based thermal plants. This was also covered in the national budget in 2022 [52]. In a study, a successful effort had been made to transform rice straw and the associated biomass into a useful product by utilizing the torrefaction technique, i.e., biocoal. This study also suggests that the use of 10% of torrefied products with coal can utilize almost 140 Mt of rice straw and associated biomass. As a consequence, this method results in the reduction of the consumption of fossil fuels [53]. Besides rice straw, other agro wastes (groundnut shells, dried cashew nut shells, maize stalks and cobs, soya stalk and husks, mustard stalks, jute sticks, cotton stalks, etc.) are being used to transform biomass and related products into energy through torrefaction technology [54].
On the other side, pyrolysis is a well-established industrial process of thermal decomposition that occurs in anaerobic conditions and is used to convert biomass into three main products: solid charcoal, liquid bio-oil, and gas [55]. The conversion of solid biomass and waste into liquid products through pyrolysis is an appealing option. The liquid products, in the form of crude bio-oil or a char slurry, offer benefits in terms of transportation, storage, combustion, retrofitting, and production and marketing flexibility [36]. In India, biomass pyrolysis is directly used for power generation. The traditional method for producing power from biomass involves burning it to create steam, which is then used to power turbines. However, current attempts have been focused on improving efficiency and reducing operating costs by developing gasifiers [56].
3.1.3. Gasification
Gasification is a complex thermochemical process and an extended version of the pyrolysis process that produces combustible gases; however, this process is considered complex as it involves several different reactions [57]. Gasification of biomass is an important technology with the potential to minimize the dependency on fossil fuels and address the environmental concerns for sustainability [58]. Air-blown gasification can be used for biomass combustion and operating boilers to produce steam and heat. They can also be used in Stirling engines for electricity generation with 20–30% efficiency. Pressurized gasification with close coupled gas turbines provides the opportunity to produce electricity at an efficiency of 40% or even higher. Enriched-air or oxygen-blown gasification at a temperature around 800–1000 °C produces synthetic gases. These gases are suitable for conversion to hydrogen, fertilizers, chemicals, and substitutes for liquid fuels, such as methanol, in bio-refineries. The biomass-based gasification market size of India has reached 2.24 × 107 MW per hour in 2022. Further, it is expected to exhibit a compound annual growth rate of 3.7% in the period of 2023–2028. The major biomass includes, but is not limited to, wood chips, agro-residues, and cotton stalks or associated materials [59].
In India, various institutes, stakeholders, and industries are working on the optimization of the process for utilizing biomass through gasification. Gasification treatment of biomass and associated materials is usually performed to meet the physical, thermal, and electricity-based demands of various industries. Further, projects on biomass gasification through plasma pyrolysis technology for chemical production are ongoing at the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. The project uses waste sugarcane bagasse and rice/wheat husk as feedstock [60]. Green Hydrogen (H2) Generation using Biomass Gasification for Fuel Cell Application (HBGF) is an ongoing project at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc). In a breakthrough this year, the team from IISc reported H2 production from biomass using an innovative two-step process. The first step involves the conversion of biomass into syngas. The second step involves a low-pressure gas separation unit to extract pure hydrogen [60]. In addition, Decentralized Energy Systems of India (DESI Power) is also working in close association with the local communities and agencies, by setting up and installing mini-grid systems for the biomass gasification process. DESI is a non-profit organization that promotes innovative and productive uses of energy in the country. DESI Power designs, sets up, and installs mini-grid systems for the gasification process of biomass in the range of 30 to 150 kW. It has targeted the remote villages of Bihar State and utilizes locally available biomass feedstock such as rice husks, twigs, and other agricultural residues [61]. NuGreen Energy Pvt. Ltd. (New Delhi, India), a company in the business of converting waste to energy, won the Global Clean Energy Award 2019 for the gasification of waste [62].
3.2. Bioconversion Technologies
The process of converting biomass to biofuels through fermentation and anaerobic digestion is known as biochemical conversion. Anaerobic digestion is more suitable for organic waste with a high moisture content. Fermentation, on the other hand, involves the hydrolysis of sugars followed by fermentation.
3.2.1. Fermentation
The fermentation process begins with sucrose being hydrolyzed by enzymes and subsequently transformed into fructose and glucose. This is followed by fermentation, distillation, and dehydration to produce bioethanol, using various cellulosic and lignocellulosic biomass in the biorefineries [63,64]. In the country, about twelve second-generation biorefineries have been cleared for set up including those from India’s leading Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) [65]. The plant from the Indian Oil Corporation (IOCL) was recently commissioned at Panipat. At the same time, it may be noted that only two major Indian providers of 2GE technology exists—The Institute of Chemical Technology (ICT), Mumbai, and Praj Industries, Pune; to date, most of the 12 projects are based on Praj’s technology. Also, Praj had set up their own 1 million L/year capacity demonstration plant in Maharashtra, which claims a zero liquid discharge rate. This plant was inaugurated in 2017. ICT technology was used to set up the 10-ton biomass/day demonstration plant by M/s India Glycols at Kashipur, Uttarakhand, and the plant was inaugurated in 2016 [66]. Most of the 2G projects have proposed rice straw as the feedstock with Numaligargh Biorefinery, Assam, being an exception, using bamboo biomass instead, and the biorefinery is based on technology from Chempolis, Finland.
3.2.2. Anaerobic Digestion
Compressed biogas (CBG), a purified product of anaerobic digestion, has calorific value and other properties similar to compressed natural gas and hence, can be utilized as green renewable automotive fuel. In addition, the organic residue left over from the anaerobic digestion process is high in nutrients and can be used as a fertilizer. In India, initially, biogas production was gaining popularity, especially in livestock waste management as it can be feasibly scaled up from small to large operations [67]. However, it was implausible to provide green energy to a mass population by using only animal waste as a raw material. Therefore, several studies are taking place to find a feedstock alternatives such as herbaceous biomass or water-based biomass slurry made up of terrestrial weeds, aquatic weeds, rice straw, etc. [68,69]. The estimated potential of CBG in the country from different sources is approximately 62 MMT, including 25 MMT from cattle dung, 20 MMT from surplus residue, 10 MMT from sewage treatment plants, 5 MMT from MSW, and 2 MMT from spent wash/press mud [70]. Therefore, MNRE is continuously giving higher priority to the CBG projects in every state of the country to develop and utilize biogas as an energy source for various purposes. The National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP) has been given the responsibility of promoting and developing biogas plants across the country. Under the NBMMP, almost 5 million family-sized biogas plants were installed by the year 2017–18. Now, NBMMP has been redesigned and renamed as NNBOMP (New National Biogas and Organic Manure Programme). NNBOMP is continuously benefiting the nation; the primary objective of this scheme is to increase the production of biogas from small plants of 1 to 25 M3 capacity. NNBOMP is also planning to set up 0.25 million biogas plants of different sizes throughout the country to generate about 0.8 million square cubic meters per day (SCMD) of biogas [45].
3.3. Chemical Conversion Technologies
India’s demand for diesel fuels is six times higher than its demand for gasoline in comparison to other countries. It was felt that, to sustain the economic growth of the country, alternative sources for petrol-based fuel are needed while considering environmental safety as well as technical competency. Therefore, biodiesels are composed of lower alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids. They can be synthesized either by esterification of fatty acids or transesterification with lower alcohols [46]. Earlier, the Planning Commission of India initiated a bio-fuel project covering 200 districts in 18 states. Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) and Karanj (Pungamia pinnata) were suggested as two plant species suitable for bio-diesel production. However, it was soon realized that some characteristics such as high viscosity, incomplete combustion, lower volatility, and large amounts of triglycerides found in their vegetative oils make them unsuitable for use as direct alternatives. These issues are linked to the large triglyceride molecules with their high molecular weight, but this can be overcome by transforming vegetable oil into biodiesel through chemical modification, resulting in a fuel with properties similar to diesel [71,72]. In the past few decades, microalgae also appear to be one of the most prominent sources of renewable biodiesel that is capable of meeting the global demand for transport fuels [73,74]. Recently, microalgae have gained recognition as a representative raw material for third-generation biofuels. The estimated oil production from specific algae strains is anticipated to be at least 60 times greater than that of soybeans, roughly 15 times more efficient than Jatropha, and about 5 times higher than oil palm per acre of land annually [75,76,77].
4. Current Status of Biomass-Based Power Generation and Biofuels in India
India’s estimated potential for power generation and biofuel generation is significant (Table 3). MNRE statistics indicate that India possesses more than 800 biomass power projects along with bagasse and non-bagasse co-generation projects. Moreover, these projects have a cumulative power generation capacity of 10,632 MW and a CBG production capacity of 140 TPD.
As of October 2022, the cumulative installed capacity of biomass power and co-generation projects stood at about 1871.11 MW from independent biomass power producers, 7562.45 MW from bagasse co-generation, and 772.05 MW from non-bagasse sources, and 223.14 MW (grid-connected) and 272.09 MWeq (off-grid) from waste to energy (WTE) projects. The capacity of the installed WTE projects has increased during the period of January to October 2022 by 61.12 MWeq, with 24 MW from grid-connected and 37.12 MWeq from off-grid plants [78]. India is also a growing market for biomass-based products such as biomass pellets and briquettes. As per secondary data, about 230 biomass pellet manufacturers and 1030 briquette manufacturers have been reported across different states of the country, who supply these products to power plants and industries for indirect energy generation. Currently, the capacity of making biomass pellets in the country is 2.38 MMT and 83,066 Mt of biomass which has been co-fired in 39 thermal power stations installed in the country [78]. The major share of all India’s agricultural-based biomass power potential is contributed by Punjab (10.6%) and Uttar Pradesh (9.8%), followed by Gujarat (9.3%), Maharashtra (9.2%), Madhya Pradesh (8.8%), and Andhra Pradesh (7%) states [47].
Table 3Estimated bioenergy production potential of India.
| Parameter | Quantity | References |
|---|---|---|
| Annual power generation potential from surplus biomass | 28,000 MW | [79] |
| Annual bagasse-based co-generation potential | 14,000 MW | [79] |
| Annual CBG production potential | 62 MMT from various sources as mentioned below:
|
[70,80,81] |
| Annual bioethanol production potential from agricultural residues | From sugarcane (1 G):
|
[79] |
| From rice (2G)—322,254 t | ||
| From maize (2G)—142,109 t |
Biofuels in India are very crucial as it aligns with the government initiatives such as Make in India, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Self-Reliant India, and skill development. They also offer opportunities to reduce imports, increasing farmers’ incomes, transform waste to wealth, and create employment. The National Policy on Biofuels (NPB) 2018 categorizes biofuels as “Basic Biofuels” and “Advanced Biofuels.” The basic biofuels include First Generation (1G) bioethanol and biodiesel. Advanced biofuels include second-generation (2G) and third-generation (3G) biofuels; 2G biofuels include bioethanol and municipal solid waste (MSW) to drop-in fuels, while 3G biofuels are related to algal biomass and bio-CNG. India has different opinion on biofuels compared to several other countries and international approaches, specifically regarding the feedstock to be used for renewable energy production [82].
In India, the rapid growth in the biomass conversion and bioenergy sectors is well promoted and supplemented through several centrally operated schemes, workshops, and other initiatives. To encourage the setting up of 2G bio-refineries, the Indian government launched the scheme “Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana” to provide financial assistance to these types of projects. Though according to the National Policy on Biofuels 2018 (NBP 2018), the use of surplus food grains and starchy feedstock is now allowed, but are subject to approval by the National Biofuel Coordination Committee (NBCC). The Policy also encourages the smoothening of the supply chains and associated mechanisms for enhanced biodiesel production, especially from short gestation crops, used cooking oil, and non-edible oilseeds [83]. The Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) mandates enforcing green fuels in the transportation sector to reduce the targeted carbon footprints. The launch of DILSAAFTM (Drop-in Liquid Sustainable Aviation and Automotive Fuel), a green diesel having a cetane number of about 75, generated from vegetable oil through single-reactor hydro-processed esters and fatty acids (HEFA) technology by CSIR-Indian Institute of Petroleum, on April 2023 indicated the country’s endogenous efficacy for contribution to the “Swadeshi” sustainable aviation fuels [84]. The bio-jet fuel has been successfully tested in aircrafts [85,86]. Moreover, the Indian government has launched the "Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation" (SATAT) initiative in which oil marketing companies from the public sector invite Expressions of Interest (EOIs) to procure CBG from potential entrepreneurs. This helps in promotion of the use of CBG in the transportation sector. About 9019 Mt of CBG has already been sold as of August 2022 [87].
5. Integrated Biorefinery Concept for Tomorrow
Biorefinery combines biological conversion processes with facilities to produce bio-based products, i.e., biofuels, value-added products, and platform chemicals, using biomass as a sustainable feedstock [43,88]. However, integrated biorefinery processes are an efficient approach for the production of both bio-based products and secondary energy carriers such as fuel, power, and heat, along with oil refineries [89]. The pilot projects in India indicate that both conventional (biodiesel and ethanol) and advanced biofuels (of lignocellulosic origin) are difficult to produce in a profitable way to create a sustainable market until the implementation of government policies and subsidies. Moreover, the techno-economy of the integrated approach has been proven in Europe, where biorefineries have been integrated with existing infrastructure for the co-production of both bio-based value-added products and biofuels from available biomass resources [90]. The integrated biorefinery concept enables the conversion of waste to high-value streams in economically attractive pathways by focusing on the key aspects, namely availability, affordability, sustainability, and productivity. India recently announced the “Mission Integrated Bio-refineries” to develop and demonstrate innovative solutions for accelerating integrated biorefineries. Its target is to replace at least 10% of fossil-based fuels, chemicals, and materials with bio-based alternatives by the next decade. The country is already on the path with the commissioning of a 10 TPD capacity pilot plants at Panipat Haryana, with the first endogenous technology for on-site integrated enzyme production [78].
6. Conclusions
The current status of bioenergy generation in India shows an increasing growth trend, but the progress is slow. Biomass-based projects contribute less than 3% of the power generation in India, while the other major sources include fossil fuels (58.2%), and solar (14.6%), hydro (12.7%), and wind (10.2%) energy as of the year 2022. However, the projected biomass power potential at the pan-India level based on the time series analysis is expected to increase to 32,937.83 MWe and 35,994.52 MWe by the years 2025–26 and 2030–31, respectively. This target can be achieved by improving and implementing a strategic plan for maximizing the availability of biomass since, out of a total of 990 MMT of agriculture-based biomass produced annually in India, the estimated surplus biomass availability is about 230 MMT per annum. Therefore, for the management of this most potential source, i.e., agricultural residues, the focus must be on strategies. The strategies are the development of future policies, the regulatory framework for improving harvesting efficiency, and the production of high-value, low-volume compounds, etc. Nonetheless, some critical issues, viz., deployment of existing technologies in agriculture, better agronomic and breeding technologies, proper supply chain, adequate policy framework, effective financing mechanisms, and effective information dissemination, need to be addressed immediately.
At present time, the country has 12 commercial CBG plants with a total CBG output capacity of 18,461.7 tons per year. The output is significantly low as compared to the total ability from various organic sources including surplus agricultural residues, animal waste, forest residues, press mud, spent wash, and municipal solid waste. Moreover, the conversion of the organic portion of MSW into energy through anaerobic digestion and composting is providing a cheap and renewable energy option in addition to a significant reduction in waste quantity. The rejects from composting should be combusted in WTE plants to produce energy and reduce their volume. In this way, the ash from the WTE plants or co-combustion facilities should be landfilled. Such a scenario would divert about 94% of MSW from landfilling out of the total of 29,427.2 tons per day currently produced in India. In conclusion, India has tremendous potential for biomass to bioenergy conversion for the production of reliable, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable bioenergy. However, implementation of certain corrective measures, i.e., efficient segregation of waste, transportation, and treatment, along with awareness, education amongst citizens, financing, the collaboration of R&D partners and industry, and the smooth functioning of an effective system are immediately required. The corrective measures pave the way for the entire process of waste to wealth for Atmanirbhar Bharat.
H.N. conceptualized, edited, and compiled the manuscript. D.C.S., R.S. and K.G. drafted the different sections of the review literature. R.G. reviewed the manuscript before submission. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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![View Image - Figure 1. Prediction of urban waste generation for India [7].](https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/THUM/2/TfH2U?_a=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&_s=4QwkHQKAuyx4djtINbwY4H9GXao%3D "View Image - Figure 1. Prediction of urban waste generation for India [7].")
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Forest biomass reservoirs from north-east regions of India: Pinus kesiya forest in Meghalaya (a); Quercus serrata stand in Manipur (b); Himalayan alder-based agroforestry system of Nagaland (c); Garo hills forest of Meghalaya (d); bamboo plantation in Arunachal Pradesh (e); Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam (f); savanna grassland, Assam (g), and forest ecosystems of Nameri National Park and Tiger Reserve, Assam (h).
![View Image - Figure 3. Map of India depicting biomass power potential for 2019–2020 (in MWe) [47].](https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/THUM/6/TfH2U?_a=ChgyMDI1MDQyOTExMjUxMjgzNzo0MjM3MzgSBzEzODMzMjMaCk9ORV9TRUFSQ0giDTE4LjIxOC4xNDYuMjEqBzIwMzI0MDIyCjI4NDkwMjY4MzI6C0lubGluZUltYWdlQgEwUgZPbmxpbmVaA0lMSWIEVEhVTWoKMjAyMy8wMS8wMXIKMjAyMy8xMi8zMXoAggEgUC0xMDAwMDg0LTIwMTM5NS1TVEFGRi1udWxsLW51bGySAQZPbmxpbmXKAWdNb3ppbGxhLzUuMCBBcHBsZVdlYktpdC81MzcuMzYgKEtIVE1MLCBsaWtlIEdlY2tvOyBjb21wYXRpYmxlOyBDbGF1ZGVCb3QvMS4wOyArY2xhdWRlYm90QGFudGhyb3BpYy5jb20p0gESU2Nob2xhcmx5IEpvdXJuYWxzmgIHUHJlUGFpZKoCG09TOkVNUy1GdWxsVGV4dC1nZXRGdWxsVGV4dMoCD0FydGljbGV8RmVhdHVyZeICAPICAPoCAVmCAwNXZWKKAxxDSUQ6MjAyNTA0MjkxMTI1MTI4Mzc6NDE4ODI1&_s=qa5GeuJ0eDCsrdAMb1YOBgIIwrY%3D "View Image - Figure 3. Map of India depicting biomass power potential for 2019–2020 (in MWe) [47].")
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Map of India depicting biomass power potential for 2019–2020 (in MWe) [47].
The cropping details of major crops grown in India [
| Crops | Area (Mha) | Production (Million Tons) | Yield (kg/ha) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rice | 4.51 | 122.27 | 27.13 |
| Wheat | 31.62 | 109.52 | 3464 |
| Nutri/Coarse cereals | 23.83 | 51.15 | 2146 |
| Pulses | 28.83 | 25.72 | 892 |
| Foodgrains | 129.34 | 308.65 | 2386 |
| Oilseeds | 28.79 | 36.10 | 1254 |
| Sugarcane | 4.86 | 399.25 | 82,205 |
| Cotton | 13.01 | 35.38 | 462 |
| Jute and mesta | 0.67 | 9.56 | 2595 |
Proposed municipal solid waste treatment capacity by Indian Government under SBM-U 2.0 [
| Type of MSW Plant | Estimated Capacity (t/Day) |
|---|---|
| Compost Plants | 30,700 |
| Biomethanation Plants | 15,100 |
| Material Recovery Facility (MRF)/Refused-Derived Fuel (RDF) Plants | 45,200 |
| Waste-to-Electricity (WtE) (RDF-based) Plants | 9700 |
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; Soni, Ravindra 3
; Giri, Krishna 4 ; Goel, Reeta 5 1 ONGC Energy Centre, 8th Floor, SCOPE Minar, Laxmi Nagar, Delhi 110092, India;
2 Vidyadayini Institute of Science, Management, and Technology, Sajjan Singh Nagar, Raisen Road, Bhopal 462021, India;
3 Department of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Raipur 492012, India;
4 Centre of Excellence on Sustainable Land Management, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun 248006, India;
5 Institute of Applied Sciences& Humanities, GLA University, Mathura 281406, India