The impact of hadith perception on disputes between ahl al-Sunnah and al-Shi'ah al-Imamiyyah al-Ithna 'Ashariyyah

Abstract

One of the main reasons for the controversies among legal schools in Islam revolves around the methodology of distinguishing authentic ahadith from those of rejected ones and applying the acceptable ahadith to different cases. This article studies hadith perception in the light of this methodology to reveal the nature of disputes between ahl al-Sunnah and al-Shi'ah al-Imamiyyah al-Ithna 'Ashariyyah which is the biggest madhhab (school) among other madhahib apart from the ahl al-Sunnah. The disagreements among the madhhab of the ahl al-Sunnah are confined to al-furu. (applications related to secondary issues), whereas the disputes between the Sunni and the Shi'ah schools are based on both al-usul (principles) and al-furu'. The main ground for this difference is their perception of hadith. If this fact is overlooked, the differences between the two schools cannot be grasped appropriately. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Headnote

Abstract: One of the main reasons for the controversies among legal schools in Islam revolves around the methodology of distinguishing authentic ahadith from those of rejected ones and applying the acceptable ahadith to different cases. This article studies hadith perception in the light of this methodology to reveal the nature of disputes between ahl al-Sunnah and al-Shi'ah al-Imamiyyah al-Ithna 'Ashariyyah which is the biggest madhhab (school) among other madhahib apart from the ahl al-Sunnah. The disagreements among the madhhab of the ahl al-Sunnah are confined to al-furu. (applications related to secondary issues), whereas the disputes between the Sunni and the Shi'ah schools are based on both al-usul (principles) and al-furu'. The main ground for this difference is their perception of hadith. If this fact is overlooked, the differences between the two schools cannot be grasped appropriately.

Keywords: methodology, hadith, ahl al-Sunnah, al-Shi'ah al-Imamiyyah, disputes

Abstrak: Salah satu punca utama kepada kontroversi antara aliran undangundang dalam Islam berkisar di sekitar kaedah dalam membezakan ahadith yang sahih daripada yang tidak dan menggunakan ahadith yang telah diterima kepada kes-kes yang berlainan. Makalah ini mengkaji persepsi hadith dari sudut kaedah ini untuk memperlihatkan punca percanggahan antara Ahl al-Sunnah dan al-Shi'ah al-Imamiyyah al-Ithna 'Ashariyyah yang merupakan mazhab yang paling utama antara madhahib yang lain selain daripada Ahl al-Sunnah. Pertikaian dalam kalangan madhab ahl al-Sunnah terbatas kepada al-furu. (aplikasi berkaitan dengan isu sekunder), manakala percanggahan antara aliran Sunni dan Shia adalah berdasarkan kepada kedua-dua al-usul (prinsip) dan al-furu'. Alasan utama bagi perbezaan ini adalah persepsi mereka terhadap hadith. Jika fakta ini terlepas pandang, perbezaan antara kedua aliran ini tidak boleh difahami dengan sewajarnya.

Kata kunci: kaedah, hadith, ahl al-Sunnah, al-Shi'ah al-Imamiyyah, pertikaian

One of the most crucial reasons for the controversies among madhahib (legal schools in Islam) revolves around the methodology of discerning sahih (authentic) ahadith (singular: hadith) from those of saqim (defect/rejected) ones and applying the acceptable ahadith to different cases. Disputes among scholars with regard to interpretation of the verses of the Qur'an may sometimes be traced back to these controversies in methodology in the field of hadith. Numerous disputes, especially in the field of fiqh (jurisprudence/ the knowledge of detailed legal rules pertaining to conduct derived from their specific evidences) can be attributed to hadith. Acceptance or rejection of a hadith, or matters such as preference of a narration to another one is an issue of ijtihad (deduction of legal rulings on new incidents) by hadith experts within a unique methodology.

Such methodological differences among madhahib of the Sunnites (ahl al-Sunnah) are the main sources of judicial richness. The sunnah plays a pivotal role in the determination of the interpretations of the verses of the Qur'an, reasons for revelation and their application to cases. Therefore, without a sound perception of the sunnah, Islam cannot be properly and profoundly conceived. The sunnah is considered determinative due to its secondary role after the Qur'an in judicial terms. This essential and decisive role of the sunnah has been agreed upon unanimously by the madhahib of the Sunnites.

There are numerous other madhahib apart from the Sunnite. Today the biggest madhhab among others is the Shiite (Shi'ah) school. Could it be claimed that the perception of the sunnah for the Shiite is as decisive as it is for the Sunnite? What is the impact of the perception of the sunnah between the two schools on contentious issues extending from belief and worship practices to determination of halal and haram (lawful and unlawful in Islam) and the ethical system? Should it play a role, and what is the extent of the dispute arising from this perception?

This article studies the Shiite school called al-Shi'ah al- Imamiyyah al-Ithna .Ashariyyah, also known as the Ja.fari School. The need to refer to this arises from the fact that although the name .Shi'ah. refers to the .Ja.fari madhhab. in the minds of the majority, this, however, does not reflect the reality entirely. Many Shiite schools have emerged throughout history and they have been parties to various religious and political disputes both in the Shiite realm and other realms. They have produced many academic works and have numerous prominent figures in politics and religious affairs. Since many conflicts exist among these sects, they should not be mistaken for each other.

For example, al-Nawbakhti, an eminent Shiite scholar of the year 300 AH, mentioned about 60 sects within the Shiite school in his renowned book Firaq al-Shi'ah (Sects of the Shiites, al- Nawbakhti, 1992). Likewise al-Qummi mentions a similar number in his famous book, Kitab Firaq al-Shi'ah (al-Qummi, 1992). Although this number increased in later years, this proliferation did not last long and these sects, with the exception of a few, vanished gradually. The Ja.fari School has been the most outstanding among all the others. Today, with its systemic religious structure and the political power it has acquired, it stands as the biggest Shiite school. This school, residing in the geopolitical centre of the Middle East, has been one of the key players in regional and global political equations.

Perception of hadith in Sunnite and Shiite schools

For this Ja.fari school, hadith constitutes the second fundamental source of reference next to the Qur'an. Followers of this school agree with Sunnites on the authority of the hadith in the religion. On the other hand, concerning the essential matters such as sources and interpretations of hadith and methods for criticism of narrations, Shiites assert rather different views from those of Sunnites. Should these differences be overlooked, the controversies between the two schools cannot be grasped properly. Hence, in order to determine the roots of the controversies objectively between these two schools, it is essential to ascertain how each of them perceives the second judicial source of Islam.

According to Sunnites, the definition of the sunnah, briefly, is that it is the narrations conveying the words (al-aqwal), acts (ala .mal) and tacit approvals (al-taqrirat) expressed by the Prophet (SAW) and the narrations which explicate his moral characteristics and physical appearance (Abu Shahbah, 1983, pp. 15-16; Itir, 1981, p. 27).

Fuqaha' take the sunnah into consideration as it lays the foundation for tashri. (law-making), in other words for fard, wajib and haram, as well as negating bid'ah. For this reason, the sayings, actions and tacit approvals attributed to the Prophet (SAW) were called .hadith. by fuqaha'. Since they evaluated hadith on judicial basis, they did not regard the narrations pertaining to the physical description and moral characteristics of the Prophet (SAW) as hadith, which distinguishes the fuqaha' from hadith scholars (Azami [n.d.], p. 3; Itir, 1981, p. 23). Nevertheless, in the major books of hadith, including Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, we see that narrations about the human aspects of the Prophet (SAW), such as his moral and physical characteristics, were categorized as hadith. Even when a narration does not contain a regulation, as it conveys a piece of information related to the Prophet (SAW), it is regarded as hadith. There is no conflict between fuqaha' and muhaddithun about the fact that ahadith conveys regulations; the difference in opinion concerns whether or not narrations on the human aspects of the Prophet (SAW) should be regarded as hadith.

According to Sunnites, the Prophet (SAW) not only delivered the revelation he received from Allah (SWT) to people but also explained and exemplified them by applying them in his own life. Thus, he was named .the living Qur'an.. Sunnites agree that ahadith pertaining to religious regulations were directly revealed to the Prophet (SAW) from Allah (SWT), and they support their statements with the verse .Nor does he say (aught) of (his own) Desire. It is no less than Inspiration sent down to him. (53: 3-4), as proof. They also assert that the word .wisdom. in the verse .Allah did confer a great favour on the believers when He sent among them a messenger from among themselves, rehearsing unto them the Signs of Allah, sanctifying them, and instructing them in Scripture and Wisdom, while, before that, they had been in manifest error. (3: 164), refers to .sunnah.. Narrations from the Prophet (SAW) and his companions support this view. The Prophet (SAW) was quoted as saying I was given the book (the Qur'an) and with it something like it (the sunnah). (Abu Dawud, vol. 4, p. 328). In light of the aforementioned verses and ahadith, Sunnites regard ahadith pertaining to religious rulings as direct revelations from Allah (SWT) to the Prophet (SAW) and consider hadith to be the secondary source for jurisdiction next to the Qur'an (Abdullah & Abdul Manas, 2006, pp. 31-52; Azami, [n.d], pp. 5-8).

According to Shiites, the sunnah constitutes the narrations conveying the words, acts and tacit approvals attributed to al- Ma.sumin (the infallibles) also, including those which explicate their moral characteristics and physical appearances. Al-Ma.sumun, also known as the .Fourteen Ma.sumun. denote the Prophet (SAW), his daughter Fatimah, her husband .Ali and his descendants, which include eleven Imams.

The Twelve Imams (including .Ali) are as follows (al-Kulayni, vol. 1, pp. 415-452.):

1) .Ali ibn Abi Talib al-Murtada (d. 40 A.H./ 660 A.D.)

2) Hasan ibn .Ali al-Zaky (d. 50 A.H. / 670 A.D.)

3) Husayn ibn .Ali Sayyid al-Shuhada' (d. 61 A.H. / 681 A.D.)

4) .Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-'Abidin (d. 95 A.H. / 713 A.D.)

5) Muhammad ibn .Ali al-Baqir (d. 114 A.H. / 732 A.D.)

6) Ja.far ibn Muhammad as-Sadiq (d. 148 A.H. / 765 A.D.)

7) Musa ibn Ja.far al-Kazim (d. 183 A.H. / 799 A.D.)

8) .Ali ibn Musa al-Rida (d. 203 A.H. / 818 A.D.)

9) Muhamad ibn .Ali al-Jawad (d. 220 A.H. / 835 A.D.)

10) .Ali ibn Muhammad al-Hadi (d. 254 A.H. / 868 A.D.)

11) Hasan ibn .Ali al-.Askari (d. 260 A.H. / 873 A.D.)

12) Muhammad ibn Hasan al-Mahdi (d. 260 A.H. / 873 A.D.)

Al-Sayyid Hasan al-Sadr defines .sunnah. as .words, acts and tacit approvals, apart from the ordinary ones and the Qur'an of the al- Ma.sum.. (al-Sadr, [n.d.]. p. 85). .Abd Allah al-Mamaqani, narrates the definition as .words, acts and tacit approvals, apart from the ordinary ones, of the Prophet (SAW) who himself is the absolute al- Ma.sum. (al-Mamaqani, 1411h., vol.1, p. 68) and adds that he deems .words, acts and tacit approvals, apart from the ordinary ones, of the one who is not permitted to lie or to err. as the best definition (al-Mamaqani, 1411h., vol.1, p. 69). Since al-Ma.sumun may express words, acts and tacit approvals following the practice of taqiyyah/ dissimulation (al-Mamaqani, 141h., vol.1, p. 69) the term .la 'adi. (not ordinary) applies only to the words, acts and tacit approvals out of the scope of taqiyyah. The issue of discernment of what constitutes the sunnah with regard to taqiyyah and to religious declarations is a complex topic to be addressed separately.

As can be deduced from the various definitions above, there are deeply rooted differences between Sunnites and Shiites concerning what constitutes the sunnah. Although Sunnites regard only the Prophet (SAW) to be free from error or sin, for Shiites, the number of al-Ma.sumun.sources of religious jurisdiction.reaches up to fourteen. The Prophet (SAW) is the only common authority in terms of source of jurisdiction between these two schools. Apart from this common authority, Imams regarded as infallible by Shiites are not deemed as sources or jurisdiction for Sunnites. The fact that more than 90 per cent of the Shiite hadith collection consists of the words, acts and tacit approvals of these Imams (Nu.mani, [n.d.]. p. 110) emphasizes the undeniable reality that the differences between these schools are found not only within the secondary issues but also in the primary ones. The core of the matter is the concept of al-Imamah (Imamology), the foundation on which the Shiite school rests, is the main issue distinguishing the two schools. From this belief emerges differences in jurisdiction and faith.

According to the doctrine of al-Imamah, Imams and the Prophet (SAW) enjoy an equal authority in religious affairs. .Allamah Tabataba'i states that a hadith heard directly from the mouth of the Prophet (SAW) or one of the Imams is accepted to the same degree as the Qur'an (Tabataba'i, [n.d.], p. 102). The words of Imams are decisive not because they are trustworthy narrators of the ahadith; on the contrary, it is due to their role as judicial sources and conveyers of decrees they receive from Allah (al-Muzaffar, [n.d.], vol. 3, p. 61). They, as mentioned in the end note, have been appointed by Allah as Imams in a definite order (al-Amin, 1986, p. 19). To clarify this issue further, we shall try to explicate what Imams. denote in the Shiite belief system, and the relationship of this belief with the sunnah by referring to Al-Kulayni.s al-Kafi, esteemed to be the most authentic source after the Qur'an.

Imams as authorities of jurisdiction and their role in controversies

The doctrine of 'al-Imamah,. as one of the foundations of faith in the Ja.fari School assigns a special mission to Imams. This mission essentially is not much different from the mission of Prophet Muhammad (SAW). It sometimes even exceeds the dimensions of the missions attributed to the Prophet (SAW) by Sunnites. According to the main Shiite source, the Twelve Imams are determined in a specific order by divine will and their political and religious authority is not subject to the ijtihad of the believers (al-Kulayni, vol. 1, p. 279). All Imams are ma.sum (free from sin or error) (al-Kulayni, vol, 1, p. 269). Imams know the past and the future and are informed of secrets and hence nothing is concealed to them (al-Kulayni, vol. 1, p. 260). Those who deny the Imams are not true believers (al- Kulayni, vol. 1, p. 187). Muqarrab angels (angels close to Allah) or even prophets cannot ascend to the lofty position of the Imams (al-Kulayni, vol. 8, p. 10). The Imams receive divine revelation through angels (al-Kulayni, vol. 1, p. 271) and determine halal and haram (al-Kulayni, vol. 1, p. 441).

By reminding that Shiite scholars believe in these qualities attributed to the Twelve Imams and in the doctrine of al-Imamah as an indispensable pillar of faith, attention is drawn to a quotation by Ruh Allah al-Khumayni, the ultimate leader of the Islamic Revolution of Iran: .[the] Imam holds such an elevated status and authority of cosmological significance that all particulars of the cosmos are under his command. Our Imams occupy such a sublime position that neither a muqarrab angel nor a prophet sent as a messenger can attain it!. (al-Khumayni, [n.d.], p. 47).

This mission assigned to the Imams and such power attributed to them elevate them to a position of super beings, far above humans. According to Sunnites, on the other hand, such a cosmological initiative cannot be attributed to prophets, let alone Imams. Hence, in the minds of the common Shiite people, prophets are rendered insignificant and barely perceptible in comparison to the Imams.

This fact is marked by the transmissions in the Shiite hadith collections stating that all prophets ranging from Adam to Muhammad (SAW) were informed of the appointment of the Imams. The hadith transmitted by Al-Kulayni on the authority of Imam .Ali ibn Musa al-Rida exemplifies this. It states: .[The] succession of .Ali is written in [the] pages of all prophets.. (al-Kulayni, vol. 1,p. 437). Another hadith pertaining to this matter is the one by the renowned Shiite scholar al-Majlisi who transmitted from Imam al- Baqir in his interpretation of the verse .We had already, beforehand, taken the covenant of Adam, but he forgot: and We found on his part no firm resolve.. (20: 115); .Allah covenanted the succession of Muhammad and [the] Imams with Adam. He did not have any firm resolve for his covenant. They were qualified as Ulu al-.Azm1 (of firm resolution) because they were given the covenant of Muhammad, [the] Imams and Mahdi. Allah (SWT) marked their supremacy in this covenant and their agreement to it. (al-Majlisi, 1404h, vol. 11, p. 35). The prominent scholar Qummi, one Al- Kulayni.s lecturers with an unquestionable authority in the Shiite world, and a contemporary of Imam Hasan ibn .Ali al-.Askari, interprets this verse of Surat Taha in his exegesis of the Qur'an which is regarded as one of the fundamental sources in Shiite religious literature (Qummi, 1404h, vol. 2, p. 66).

The hadith texts mentioned above give a clear depiction of what Imams represent in the Shiite perception of religion. The same hadith texts define the sunnah as a figure moulding the perception of religion as well. In other words, the Imams are regarded sources for religious jurisdiction like the Prophet (SAW) and such reports about them have changed this perception into a basic element of the belief system. These transmissions, although their source cannot be traced to the Qur'an, are considered sacred by Shiites. Furthermore, they emerge with a powerful authority that designates the interpretation of the Qur'an as well as the boundaries of faith and the legal system.

The problem of common authority in the perception of the sunnah between the two schools

From the above analysis, it should now be clear that Shiite and Sunnite schools have different perceptions of the sunnah. As stated above, in terms of the sunnah, the only common ground is the transmissions received from the Prophet (SAW). Nonetheless, this does not mean that these two schools agree on the transmissions coming from the Prophet (SAW) in the hadith sources. The Shiite perception of al-sahabah (companions of the Prophet, SAW) and the definition of the accepted hadith for scholars of methodology preclude even to agree on the transmissions coming from the Prophet (SAW). Those who saw the Prophet (SAW), attended his educational circle, listened to his speeches, learned from him, observed him in times of war or peace, when he was in a mosque or a bazaar, briefly or in all aspects of his life are al-sahabah, and his message and everything related to him are transmitted from them. Realistically, it could not have been otherwise. Therefore, once al-sahabah are removed from the chain of transmission, it is not possible to attain the Prophet.s (SAW) legacy. Rejecting the trustworthiness and uprightness ('adalah/amanah) of al-sahabah will consequently lead to the rejection of the heritage of the Prophet (SAW) altogether. The Imamites. perception of al-sahabah has resulted in this situation.

Shiites, as an inevitable result of their doctrine of al-Imamah, had to abandon all except a few generations of al-sahabah in the chain of transmission. Given this, they have deprived themselves of the Prophetic tradition and legacy. Another repercussion of Shiites. rejection is that in the Shiite collections of ahadith, the number of ahadith transmitted from the Prophet (SAW) is much fewer than the ahadith transmitted from the Imams. The word 'inevitable. has been specifically employed here to elucidate the doctrine of al-Imamah and its repercussions on the perception of the sunnah.

As mentioned earlier, the Ja.fari school believe in the succession of the twelve Imams in a specific order. According to this belief, the person to succeed the Prophet (SAW) in political and religious realms, the person to lead the Ummah after him should have been .Ali. The Shiite claim that this was not an option but a command from Allah. However, al-sahabah infringed this command by electing Abu Bakr as their leader and pledging allegiance to him. They denied and distorted what Shiites claim to be .divine decrees.. It follows that when the messages of al-sahabah transmitted from the Prophet (SAW) are evaluated, their impartiality and uprightness are discredited. When the narrator in the chain of transmission is not regarded as impartial or fair, the messages themselves will not be considered trustworthy. The number of ahadith advocating this notion of al-sahabah is so abundant in the Shiite collection that accepting the transmissions of al-sahabah is rendered impossible. This perception has separated the two schools throughout history.

Further transmissions can be quoted to illustrate this matter. Al- Kulayni, in his interpretation of the verse, .Lo! those who believe, then disbelieve and then (again) believe, then disbelieve, and then increase in disbelief, Allah will never pardon them, nor will He guide them unto a way. (4: 137) refers to a transmission from Imam Ja.far al-Sadiq and asserts that the people mentioned in the verse refer to al-Sahabah who acknowledged the imamah of .Ali reluctantly in the Prophet.s (SAW) time but after his demise did not pledge allegiance to .Ali, and therefore their hearts were left without faith (al-Kulayni, vol. 1, p. 420). A transmission from Imam al-Baqir maintains that all the al-Sahabah except three became ahl al-riddah (the people of apostasy) after the Prophet.s (SAW) demise. These three al-Sahabah were Salman al-Farisi, al-Miqdad ibn al-Aswad, and Abu Dharr al-Ghifari (al-Kulayni, vol. 8, p. 245; al-Majlisi, vol. 22, p. 333; al-Kashshi, [n.d.], p. 6). Those acquainted with Shiite literature should know that it contains many such transmissions which have moulded the Shitte perception.

As it is widely acknowledged, hadith collections of Sunnite assign a central role to al-Sahabah in extending their sources to the Prophet (SAW). A hadith without one of the al-sahabahs in its transmission cannot be regarded as sahih (accepted). Hence, ahadith coming from Sunnite sources bear no significance to the Shiite. Although sometimes Shiites may use ahadith coming from Sunnite sources and bring examples from such sources to reinforce their arguments, such occurrences do not imply that Shiites regard these sources acceptable. What is aimed at with such quotations is simply to bind Sunnites with their own arguments and sources. Therefore, it is explicit that the perception of the sunnah plays a divisive role between these two schools.

At this point another question comes to mind: does the Ja.fari school accept ahadith transmitted by al-Sahabah they consider to be trustworthy in the Sunnite collections as religious texts, and act upon them? Answering this question affirmatively does not seem to be possible since the very description of hadith by Shiite scholars prevents this. The criteria of the two schools for hadith sahih are different. As the criteria are different, the accepted and rejected ahadith also differ. According to Sunnites, hadith sahih is the hadith which is narrated by a reporter who is honest, of good memory power, without any break in the chain of narrators, without any shudhudh (rareness/whose narrator is trustworthy but contradicts the narration of trustworthy narrators) and without any 'illah (defect) (Ibn Hajar, Sharh Nukhbat al-Fikr, p. 1; al-Suyuti, [n.d.], vol. 1, p. 66).

As stated in the definition, all five criteria should be applied in order to prove that a hadith can be attributed to the Prophet (SAW). The first three pertain to the criticism of the chain of narrators while the last two refer to both the narrators and the text. According to the criteria, the transmitters should be 'adil (of confirmed integrity and probity). .Adl indicates abstaining from all kinds of small and big sins such as shirk (association of partner with Allah) and fisq (departure from the obedience of Allah) and being a sincere and devout Muslim (al-Ghazali, 1413h, p. 125; al-Razi, 1400h, vol. 4, p. 571). The minimum requirement of this condition is that the person has not committed a major sin and does not persist in committing minor ones.

In terms of narrators who are ahl al-bid'ah (someone who is heretic in religion), unless they reject matters known by necessity, Sunnites accept their transmissions if they fulfill the criteria of 'adl and dabt (the ability of a person to listen to an utterance, to comprehend its meaning as it was originally intended and then to retain it and take all necessary precautions to safeguard its accuracy) (Ibn Hajar, Nuzhat al-Nazar Sharh Nukhbat al-Fikr, p. 50; al- Sakhawi, 1403h, vol. 1, p. 324). Trustworthy narrators should possess the abilities of learning ahadith precisely, and must possess a retentive memory so that their report may be trusted, or record them in written form in their books. There should also be no hindrance for the reporters to transmit the message from one another; in other words, there should not be any disconnection in the chain of narrators. Furthermore, the trustworthy narrator of a hadith should not contradict the narration of those who are more trustworthy and have better retentive memory than he has; if not, such hadith are classified as hadith Shadhdh. This would denote that the narrator as well as the transmission are shudhudh (abnormal) and out of the boundaries of sahih. Finally, a hadith should have no deficiency in either its text or its sanad and bear no weakness according to the given criteria. For Sunnites, a hadith is regarded sahih if its chain of narration and text satisfy the criteria without being hindered by the mechanism of critique. This demonstrates that Shiites and Sunnites have different perceptions even for hadith sahih.

Nevertheless, the definition and criteria of hadith sahih in Shiite literature are different from the Sunnite ones. The definition of hadith sahih for Shiite is founded on the fundamentals of the school. They propound three criteria and do not consider the criterion of .not containing any shudhudh or defect. essential for hadith sahih. In other words, they renounce the critique of the text in determining hadith sahih. This matter is clarified fully in Shiite books on hadith methodology. For example, al-Shahid al-Thani defines sahih hadith as: .A hadith that is transmitted by Imamite transmitters with 'adl and dabt from other Imamite transmitters with the same qualities through a continuous chain of narration, even though it might be shazz.. (al-Shahid al-Thani, 1404h, pp. 21-22). Mirdamad and al- Mamaqani define hadith sahih as: .A hadith that is transmitted by 'adl and dabt Imamite transmitters from other 'adl and dabt Imamite transmitters on the authority of masums (Imams) through a continuous chain of narration.. (Mirdamad, [n.d.]. p. 40; al- Mamaqani, 1411h, vol. 1, p. 147). As can be observed in the definitions, transmitters should not only possess 'adl and dabt but they should also be Imamites. All Shiite sects, except al-Zaydiyyah, are Imamites; they believe in the infallibility and walayah (attachment) of the Imams. The number of Imams, however, is not agreed upon. Al-Isma'iliyyah believes in six Imams; thus despite being Imamites, they are not regarded a part of the Ja.fari school. For the Ja.fari school, the criterion for the narrator to be an Imamite refers to being devoted to the Twelve Imams. In order to be a true believer, the political and religious submission to the Twelve Imams is essential, and those who refrain from it will not be deemed true believers and will be considered fasiq in the mildest sense, albeit remaining within the borders of Islam. The condition for the transmitter to be an Imamite negates the transmissions of Sunnite narrators or narrators from other Shiite sects, even if they possess 'adl, and ahadith transmitted by them are not considered sahih (al- Mamaqani, 1411h, vol. 2, p. 28; al-Qummi, Abu al-Qasim, [n.d.], p. 457).

As the definition of hadith sahih in Shiite literature indicates, none of the ahadith sourced from the collections of Sunnites, even though recorded in Bukhari and Muslim, are within the scope of .sahih. from the Shiite perspective. The hadith criteria reflecting the sensitivities of the Shiite school do not permit this. This situation, however, should not be interpreted as meaning that Shiite and Sunnite hadith collections do not contain any common texts. However, the texts appearing in the collections of both schools are the narrations these schools bring forward according to their own criteria. Although there is a common sphere in regard to some hadith text, there also exists a vast domain of controversy.

The criteria for hadith sahih and their sources spanning over centuries manifest considerable diversities. Since al-Imamiyyah has ramified into two sects, al-Akhbariyyun and al-Usuliyyun, and al- Akhbariyyun renounce hadith critique and view hadith methodology as an innovation of Sunnites (al-Hurr al-'Amili, [n.d.], vol. 30, p. 259), the researcher can claim that the controversies are very deeply rooted. Al-Akhbariyyun is an influential branch in the Ja.fari school. This sect had a tremendous impact on Shiite hadith literature and its inadequate methodology of hadith criticism and 'ilm al-rijal (study of the narrators). The errors of the methodologists such as delayed classification of ahadith, problems with the implementation of the methodology, failure to sort out the ahadith in Shiite hadith literature as sahih, hasan, da'if (weak) or mawdu. (fabricated) are mainly due to the influence of al-Akhbariyyun. This influence is still ongoing. The disputes between al-Usuliyyun and al-Akhbariyyun still constitute the most problematic area of the hadith field both inside and outside the Shiite school.2 For example, by declaring the ahadith in the al-Kutub al-Arba'ah (four major hadith collections)3 of Shiite literature (the collection considered to be a counterpart of al-Kutub al-Sitta in Sunni literature) to be 'absolute. (al-Subhani, Kuliyat fi Ilmi al-Rijal, [n.d.], p. 35), al-Akhbariyyun has caused the field of hadith to become remarkably controversial. The ahadith contained in these books contradict each other. The collection contains numerous ahadith contradicting the principle that Qur'an is preserved as it was revealed by Allah.

To illustrate that this sect has turned the perception of hadith into a problematic area can be seen from Al-Kulayni.s transmission from Imam al-Sadiq asserting that the Qur'an is not the book people hold and read today but once the twelfth Imam (al-Mahdi) reappears, he will bring the original copy of the Qur'an (al-Kulayni, vol. 2, p. 633; al-Majlisi, vol. 89, p. 88). Many other transmissions narrating those who distorted and altered the Qur'an also exemplify the impact of al-Akhbariyyun (al-Kulayni, vol. 8, pp. 124-125). It is an established fact that the Qur'an is safe from distortion and it is under the protection of Allah (SWT) as the verse of the Qur'an states: .We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it (from corruption). (15: 9). The narrations quoted above contradict this fact stated in the Qur'an. Al-Akhbariyyun, by acknowledging all the ahadith in al-Kutub al-Arba'ah as absolute and certain, authenticate these narrations about the distortions in the Qur'an. Some scholars belonging to the al-Usuliyyun sect have also accepted the certainty of al-Kutub al-Arba'ah.

There are further examples of how Shiite ahadith contradict each other, such as the contradictions about the ruling on mut'ah or temporary marriage. There are narrations ruling mut'ah as haram as well as those stating that it is halal. The hadith that states that .Rasul Allah (SAW) prohibited donkey meat and mut'ah. (al-Hurr al-'Amili, vol. 21, p. 12; al-Tusi, n.d., vol. 7, p. 257) contradicts the ahadith allowing mut'ah (Ibn Babawih, Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih (1413h), v, 3, p. 459, al-Tusi, n.d., vol. 7, p. 249, 250). Similarly, the ahadith allowing the eating of the meat of falcons and hawks contradict those prohibiting them (al-Kulayni, vol. 6, p. 208; Ibn Babawih, Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih (1413h), vol. 3, p. 320; al-Tusi, n.d., vol. 9, p. 32; al-Hurr al-'Amili, vol. 23, p. 352). The narrations saying that the Imam are free from sin (al-Kulayni, vol, 1, p. 269), and those saying that they may lie also mark serious contradiction (al- Kulayni, vol, 8, p. 292; al-Majlisi, vol. 47, pp. 223-224). These examples show that hadith criticism is not well applied by Shiites and, therefore, it does not achieve results in line with their hadith methodology.

Conclusion

The disputes between Shiites and Sunnites are unlike the divisions among various madhhab of the Sunnite school which share the same belief and faith systems, sources of knowledge, view of the al- sahabah and recognition of the Prophet (SAW) as the only source of hadith. Differences in ijtihad due to the particulars of methodology do not alter this fact. The disagreement among madhahib of Sunnites are confined to al-furu. (applications related to secondary issues), whereas the disputes between Sunnite and Shiite schools are based on both al-usul (principles) and al-furu.. The main ground for this difference is the doctrine of al-Imamah, and, consequently, the Shiite perception of the sunnah. If this fact is overlooked, the differences between the two schools cannot be grasped.

The sunnah is a source of knowledge which moulds the perception and practice of the religion. The Shiite thought has been systemized by the tremendous efforts of thousands of scholars over hundreds of years extending up to the contemporary period. The Qur'an and the sunnah constitute the main sources of reference for Shiites except for those Shiite scholars who have been led astray into believing that the Qur'an has been distorted.

The Shiite doctrine has located itself in the tradition of hadith. The field of hadith dominates the domains of kalam (theology), tafsir (exegesis), fiqh (jurisprudence), political literature and ethics. This comprises the intra-discipline of the madhhab. The Shiite perception of hadith studied in this article is as archaic as it is modern. Contemporary Shiite scholars and Shiite followers guided by those scholars believe in the infallibility of the Imams and the hadith definition of the Shiite provided in this study. A quick reference to contemporary books should suffice to shed light on this issue (al- Subhani, Ja.far, Usul al-Hadith wa-Ahkamihi fi Ilm al-Dirayat; al- Khumayni, al-Hukumat al-Islamiyyat; Tabataba'i, Muhammad Husayn, Shi'ah; Mishkini, Ayatullah .Ali, Sunnah, from Shiites and Sunnites Viewpoints).

In conclusion, we can assert that the disputes between Sunnites and Shiites pertain more to essentials than to forms. This is because the methodology which determines the authenticity of the sunnah and sources of narrators are at variance between these two schools of thought. Therefore, the sunnah which defines the religion is significantly different for both of them.

Footnote

Endnotes

1. Ulu al-'Azm are messengers mentioned by the Qur'an; .Therefore, patiently persevere, as did (all) messengers of firm resolution; and be in no haste about the (Unbelievers). (46: 35). They have been also named in the verse: .And remember We took from the Prophets their Covenant: As from thee: from Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus the son of Mary: We took from them a solemn covenant. (33: 7).

2. For more information about the conflict of opinion on hadith criticism and its legitimacy, between al- Akhbariyyun and al-Usuliyyun, see; al-Subhani, Kulliyat fi 'Ilm al-Rijal, pp. 31-51; al-Ghayrafi, pp. 16-25.

3. Four major hadith collections in Shiite schools are: (i) al-Kafi by Muhamad ibn Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Razi al-Kulayni (d. 329 A.H. / 940 A.D.); (ii) Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih by Abu Ja.far, Muhamad ibn .Ali al-Qummi Ibn Babawih al-Saduq (d. 381 A.H. / 911 A.D.); (iii) Istibsar fima Ikhtalafa min al-Akhbar; and (iv) Tahdhib al-Ahkam by Abu Ja.far Muhammad ibn al-Hasan ibn .Ali. al- Tusi (d. 460 A.H. / 1067 A.D.)

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