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INTRODUCTION
In recent years much of the material that is used as meaning-focused input for language learning has become available in both written and aural formats. Course books tend to include both aural and written versions of the same passages, and graded reading material can be purchased along with CDs that include the spoken versions of the texts. This allows for L2 input to be encountered in three modes: reading, listening, and reading while listening. 1 There are a large number of studies that have examined vocabulary learning in these different modes. The vast majority of these studies have investigated reading with results consistently demonstrating that L1 (e.g., Biemiller & Boote, 2006; Gonzalez et al., 2010; Jenkins et al., 1984; Nagy et al., 1985; Reynolds, 2019; Shu et al., 1995) and L2 words (e.g., Day et al., 1991; Dupuy & Krashen, 1993; Hulstijn, 1993; Pigada & Schmitt, 2006; Pitts et al., 1989; Waring & Takaki, 2003) can be learned incidentally through reading. Although there are relatively few studies that have investigated incidental vocabulary learning through listening, this line of research has also shown that L1 (e.g., Elley, 1989; Robbins & Ehri, 1994) and L2 (Brown et al., 2008; van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013; Vidal, 2011) words can be incidentally learned through listening. Research suggests that reading while listening also contributes to incidental vocabulary learning (Brown et al., 2008; Horst et al., 1998; Webb & Chang, 2012a, 2015a, 2015b). Comparisons of the extent to which the three different modes contribute to incidental vocabulary learning are limited. However, initial findings indicate that reading while listening might be as effective (Brown et al., 2008), or more effective than reading (Webb & Chang, 2012a), and that listening may be the least effective mode (Brown et al., 2008).
One question that remains to be explored is how these three modes of learning contribute to incidental learning of collocations. Because English tends to be made up of a large proportion of frequently occurring strings of words (e.g., Erman & Warren, 2000) and learning these sequences tends to be a relatively slow process (e.g., Altenberg & Granger, 2001; Laufer & Waldman, 2011), it is useful to determine the extent to which collocations are learned through different modes of meaning-focused input. Although there...