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Introduction
Organisational identification plays a significant role in many organisations ([6] Ashforth and Mael, 1996; [23] Foreman and Whetten, 2002; [50] Tajfel and Turner, 1985). It can be defined as "the perception of oneness with or belongingness to an organisation, where the individual defines him or herself in terms of the organisation(s) in which he or she is a member" ([34] Mael and Ashforth, 1992, p. 104). When employees identify strongly with their organisation, this can result in greater job satisfaction, a lower absentee rate, lower staff turnover and greater cooperative behaviour (e.g. [8] Bartel, 2001; [42] Riketta, 2005; [52] Van Dick et al. , 2004).
Although the notion that employees are able to identify with various groups is not new ([1] Albert and Whetten, 1985; [17] Brickson, 2000; [39] Pratt and Foreman, 2000), organisational identification has long been approached as a one-dimensional construct. In the majority of studies, the emphasis is on the degree to which employees identify with the organisation as a whole ([7] Ashforth and Saks, 1996; [23] Foreman and Whetten, 2002; [34] Mael and Ashforth, 1992). Only more recently has it become apparent that employees are able to simultaneously identify with different groups within an organisation. Thus, there are more organisational levels at which identification can occur, such as the work group, divisional, and overall organisational levels ([3] Ashforth et al. , 2008; [4] Ashforth and Johnson, 2001). Various studies have shown that the identification of employees with a specific organisational level positively correlates with their identification with other organisational levels ([12] Baruch and Winkelmann-Gleed, 2002; [43] Riketta and Van Dick, 2005; [53] Van Knippenberg and Van Schie, 2000).
[4] Ashforth and Johnson (2001) proposed a model in which identities can be cross cutting and/or nested (embedded) (see also [15] Brewer, 1995; [21] Dukerich et al. , 1996; [35] Mueller and Lawler, 1999). The former (cross-cutting) occurs when an identity cuts vertically through organisational levels; the latter (nested) emphasises the idea that identities manifest themselves within the various organisational levels. [4] Ashforth and Johnson (2001) refer to subordinate levels of an organisation as so-called lower-order identities (e.g. profession, job and work group). Lower-order identities are relatively concrete and proximate because employees carry out their daily activities in their jobs or...