HIGUCHI ICHIYO'S TAKEKURABE: ITS RECEPTION IN CONNECTION WITH POST-WAR EDUCATION1

Abstract

Higuchi Ichiyo's Takekurabe, published in 1895, was praised by numerous men of letters as an example of the literature emerging at the beginning of the Meiji era, and went on to become one of the classics of Japanese literature, read by young and old alike. My paper looks at the new patterns of reception that appeared in the post-war period, and points out the way Ichiyo's novel was "translated" into modern Japanese, as well as into manga and film form, in order to reach a wider (and younger) audience, and fit the sensibilities of the age, as well as its political, social and cultural requirements. The problems faced during the "translation" process include, on the one hand, transposing old Japanese into modern Japanese, and on the other hand, the necessity to find a suitable solution as far as the location (the pleasure quarters of Yoshiwara, a not-so-honourable topos connected to Japan's feudal past) of the story is concerned. By taking up the topic of the Takekurabe's rewriting, I am planning to clarify the relationship between its form and contents after translation, on the one hand, and democratic thought in the post-war period on the other. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Headnote

Abstract: Higuchi Ichiyo's Takekurabe, published in 1895, was praised by numerous men of letters as an example of the literature emerging at the beginning of the Meiji era, and went on to become one of the classics of Japanese literature, read by young and old alike.

My paper looks at the new patterns of reception that appeared in the post-war period, and points out the way Ichiyo's novel was "translated" into modern Japanese, as well as into manga and film form, in order to reach a wider (and younger) audience, and fit the sensibilities of the age, as well as its political, social and cultural requirements.

The problems faced during the "translation" process include, on the one hand, transposing old Japanese into modern Japanese, and on the other hand, the necessity to find a suitable solution as far as the location (the pleasure quarters of Yoshiwara, a not-so-honourable topos connected to Japan's feudal past) of the story is concerned. By taking up the topic of the Takekurabe's rewriting, I am planning to clarify the relationship between its form and contents after translation, on the one hand, and democratic thought in the post-war period on the other.

Keywords: Higuchi Ichiyo, Takekurabe, school, pleasure quarters, translation, reform, democracy.

Introduction

Takekurabe's s sixteen chapters were first published in installments in the magazine Bungakukai, between 1895 and 1896. In April 1896 the entire novel was published in Bungei Kurabu, one of the representative literary magazines of the period. Famous men of letters such as Mori Ogai, Koda Rohan and Saito Ryokuu read and praised Ichiyo's novel, which turned her into one of the most appreciated writers of the time.

Nowadays, among all of Ichiyo's works, Takekurabe is considered to be a good example of literature for children, and it has been "translated" as a picture book and as manga, to make it more accessible for children; yet, when looking at the plot and settings of Takekurabe, one cannot help but wonder how was this novel understood by its young readers.

It is true that Takekurabe is a story about children, revolving around the summer and fall festivals. The novel describes the fight between the omote-machi gang, lead by Shotaro, and Chokichi's yoko-cho gang on the day of Senzoku Shrine's summer festival, the way children get together and play every day at the brush-maker's, the teenage feelings of love directed at the only girl in the group, Midori, etc. The protagonists are all children, and the way the story develops is greatly influenced by one external element, i.e., the location.

The story is set in Shitaya Ryusenji-cho, an area behind the pleasure quarters of Yoshiwara, where the licensed prostitutes used to live. It is also the place where, since the Edo period, the people working in the pleasure quarters, called kuruwamono, were living. Midori's sister is, in fact, a highclass courtesan in Yoshiwara, and Midori, who had come with her to Shitaya Ryusenji-cho, will eventually start working in the pleasure quarters as a courtesan herself. Nevertheless, the young Midori does not know yet what's in store for her, nor does she know what kind of place Yoshiwara actually is. In the story, she is innocently proud of her sister's affluence, and falls in love with Shin'nyo, a Buddhist priest's son, with whom she could never get married, because of the difference in social status. Towards the end of the story, Midori says that she does not want to grow up; she loses her lively manner and no longer comes out to play with the children, who used to call her their "queen". These are indications that her childhood will soon be over, and Midori is slowly being engulfed by the "adult" world of Yoshiwara. In a nutshell, Takekurabe does not simply describe the carefree world of children and children's games, but places it in sharp contrast with the sexual trade going on in the pleasure quarters.

The scene of the novel Takekurabe is actually the place Higuchi Ichiyo herself lived. She was born in Tokyo in 1872, at a time when the Edo period was just ending and Meiji had yet to begin, as the daughter of a former samurai; she had a quite privileged childhood, but, with the death of her older brother and father, her life drastically changed. In order to support her mother and younger sister, she decided to write novels, but since that was not enough, they had to open a household goods store, in Shitaya Ryusenji-cho. Some years later, Ichiyo leftShitaya and started writing again; she gained the recognition she wanted, but in 1896, at the age of only 24, she died of consumption.

As I mentioned before, Mori Ogai praised Takekurabe- and he praised it exactly for its detailed and vivid description of the unique customs of Yoshiwara. Ichiyo based much of the description on her own experiences and on what she had heard from the people living in the area; it is not difficult to imagine why the setting of her novel did not make it very appropriate as children's literature in the beginning. As a matter of fact, when it was first adapted as a children's book in 1940 by Muramatsu Sadataka, publication was forbidden. The reasons given by the censoring authorities were connected to the "bad influence on morals"; the official document stated that, being set in "the vicinity of the Yoshiwara pleasure quarters", the novel focuses on "the life of children living in a very peculiar environment, and is too indecent for young readers"2. In other words, the first contact between Takekurabe and children's literature ended in failure, but this situation underwent a complete change only a few years later. Muramatsu Sadataka's Jido Takekurabe [Children's Takekurabe] was published in 1948, as the first volume in the collection Shonen Shojo Bungaku Shu. This change is reflected in the way Takekurabe is perceived today too; but what was, in fact, the reason Ichiyo's novel was suddenly linked to children's literature at this specific point in time?

My paper does not have as its purpose the analysis of the text Takekurabe itself, but rather of the way the reception of the text changed in time. The fact that this novel was suddenly perceived as one appropriate for children is directly connected to the Second World War, and its end in defeat for the Japanese, on August 15, 1945; it clearly puts into perspective Japan's post-war experience, in other words. My intention here is to shed light onto the relationship between literature and society, by looking closely at some aspects of the intersection between post-war Japan and Takekurabe.

A clear proof of Takekurabe's re-evaluation in the post-war period is its introduction to school education. Not only did it become compulsory reading, as part of the high-school language and literature textbooks, but it was also introduced to junior high-school in the form of a school-play script, and as a manga book, included in several collections of stories especially published for school children.

What is, exactly, the process through which school education and Ichiyo's text become linked to each other? What is the point that post-war education is trying to make, using Takekurabe? When Ichiyo's novel was "translated" into play or manga form, was it only to make the text, originally written in classical Japanese, easier to read? The problem goes deeper than that, for sure, since "translation" can never be a completely transparent medium, inevitably adding a context-dependant reinterpretation of the text. By analyzing the various "translations" of Takekurabe, I will try to clarify what aspects of Ichiyo's novel are emphasized and re-evaluated in each of them; by looking at the essence of these re-evaluations, I would finally like to link them to the changes that govern post-war Japanese society.

1. The Translation of Takekurabe and "School" as a Topos

First of all, let us look at the Japanese post-war education, and identify the reasons for Takekurabe to be reconsidered as a work of art of high educational value.

The year that Takekurabe was first published as a book for children, 1947, is also the first year of the so-called post-war education, which started with the promulgation and enforcement of the March 31st Kyoiku Kihon Ho [Basic Law of Education]. The law in operation until then, Kyoiku Chokugo, the imperial prescript promulgated on the 30th of October 1890, had been the only act legislating Japanese education.

The preface to the Basic Law of Education contains the following declaration: "We are hereby showing our dedication towards contributing for the welfare of all humanity and world-wide peace, through the establishment of a national constitution, and through the creation of a democratic country, with a high level of culture. The power of education will lay the foundations for our endeavour." The new constitution had been promulgated the previous year, on the 3rd of November, and was to come in operation one month later, that is from April 1947, but the education for a "democratic" state, with "high cultural standards" had already started3. Takekurabe was rediscovered and reinterpreted as teaching material following the enforcement of the Basic law of Education; the interesting issue here is to look at why this happened, and at what meanings the text was subsequently made to carry.

The protagonists of Takekurabe are all children living in the vicinity of the pleasure quarters of Yoshiwara, a very peculiar topos, to be sure, but another special coordinate that is added to their lives is the school they all attend. The relationships between the children are, on the one hand, traditionally defined by the regional ties between the omote-machi and the yoko-cho, but on the other hand, by the different type of ties that develop at school. As far as "Shin'nyo from Ryusenji and Daikokuya's Midori" are concerned, they attend the same school, and the narrator describes their relationship as follows in chapter 7:

The spring sports festival was held on the Mizunoya field (...) For some reason, Shin'nyo was not his usual, composed self; he had kneeled down under a pine-tree near the lake, with his hands in the red dirt. Midori couldn't stand looking at him get his clothes dirty, so she went up and offered him her handkerchief: "Use this, please, to wipe yourself", she said (...) In the beginning, Midori used to call him, and they used to walk back home together after school; she would walk ahead of Shin'nyo, and if she found a flower that she liked, she would wait for him, and say: "Look, that flower is so pretty, but I can't reach, can you get it from me, please?" 4

In this fragment, the sports festival and after school activities are paid special attention to, which clearly shows that the children's world revolves around school. For Shin'nyo, a Buddhist priest's son, and Midori, a girl living in the pleasure quarter, two people from worlds otherwise completely separate, school is the exceptional place that makes their encounter possible. According to the laws passed by the Meiji government, all children were given the chance to go to school-the centralized school system pervaded even the most traditional of spaces, and thus, Yoshiwara's Shin'nyo and Midori met. It is not a coincidence that this very chapter, was the first one to be chosen to be introduced to post-war education.

Takekurabe was directly rewritten for enjoyment as a school-play by Tajima Yoshio in 1950; it was included in the volume "Jitsuen Shido Mohan Gakkogeki Zenshu", from Shogakukan. I will enlarge upon the significance of the chosen form, i.e., a play, later; for now, let me remark that Ichiyo's novel was "translated" in a way especially meant to encourage elementary school children to act the text on stage, as it included detailed stage directions and even descriptions of props, decors, etc.

Next, let us focus on the play Takekurabe, in order to identify the elements that connect the text Takekurabe with school as a topos.

The play is made up of three acts, and in the first act, as in the original text, the children are described playing at the brush-maker's. After all the other girls leave, Midori stays on, chatting with the brush-maker's wife; the story overlaps with the episode from chapter 7 that I introduced in the previous quotation: after referring to the relationship between Shin'nyo and Midori, the narrator goes on to talk about how Shin'nyo has started to act bitter towards Midori in order to avoid the irony of his friends, how Midori feels betrayed by him, and how the distance between them is starting to grow. Furthermore, the fight between the children from omotemachi and those from yoko-cho, after the festival at the Senzoku Shrine is also described, as well as Midori's angry words for Shin'nyo, who had joined the yoko-cho group. In the first act of the school-play Takekurabe, we can find the following conversation between Midori and the brushmaker's wife:

Midori: Everybody knows that Chokichi is a rough good-for-nothing, but the fight wouldn't have gotten so far without Shin'nyo pushing everybody from behind...

The wife: But, Midori dear... yoko-cho or omote-machi, aren't you all going to the same school? Aren't you all sitting down at your desks, in the same classroom? Why the rivalry, I don't understand. Every year, there's something that sparks the fight. What can be done?

Midori: (knowing that she should probably say something, but unable to find the words.) 5

In the original text, the phrase "After sitting together in the same classroom, whether from omote-machi or yoko-cho, we're all supposed to be fellows" is introduced to express Midori's feelings about the fight between the two gangs, but in the school-play it is the brush-maker's wife that says it. Even though the play follows the original text closely, it tends to give a slightly different twist to the episodes that relate to the changes in the school environment. The same thing is made obvious in the manga version of Takekurabe, published five years after the play, as part of the collection "Sekai Meisaku Chohen Manga"6. Let us take a look at the following excerpt from this illustrated book:

In the Rules about Class Organization, promulgated in 1891, one year after the Imperial Edict on Education, it is indicated that only the first and second grades of elementary school are coeducational, while after the third grade boys and girls study separately. Regardless of whether the school was public or private, the curricula for boys and girls were different, too. The protagonists of Takekurabe are 14 (Midori) and 15 (Shin'nyo); the classroom is not described in the text, and the two of them sharing the same classroom refers to a thing of the past. Nevertheless, both in the school-play and in the manga Takekurabe the children, boys and girls, are described as sitting side by side in the same room. This slight change is meant to reflect the existing state of things in the post-war classroom.

Koyama Shizuko points out that, during the discussions about the Basic Law of Education, an article about "women's education" was proposed originally, and from there the issue of co-education arose, and further developed into the understanding that "democratization" cannot be achieved without equal chances at education for both sexes7. At the time of the promulgation of the law, numerous articles in the media discussed democratization and coeducation as inseparable issues8, and it is no exaggeration to say that the engine behind the post-war educational reform was indeed the need to offer equal chances of access to the same education for boys and girls alike. As a result of the discussions carried out within the legislating body as well as in the media, the 5th article of the Basic Law of Education, About Coeducation was decided upon, and it stated clearly that "Men and women should respect each other and work together, and to that end it is of the utmost necessity that we clear the way for mixed education".

Released on the same day as the Basic Law of Education was the Law for School Education (Gakko Kyoiku Ho, 31.03.1947); according to it, education in school was divided into: 6 years of elementary school, 3 of junior highschool, 3 of high-school, and 4 years at university. The new system was implemented at junior high and high-school level starting the same year in April. As far as coeducation is concerned, it was made compulsory at junior high-school level in public schools, while in private schools the decision was leftin the hands of the schools themselves; in the case of high-schools, both public and private ones were to act according to the situation, implementing co-education where possible9.

To return to Takekurabe's post-war renditions, the image of boys and girls studying in the same classroom is clearly meant to reflect the reality of the newly-introduced co-education. Moreover, the ages of the Takekurabe protagonists (13-16 years old) correspond to the ages of the children who fell under the effect of the new law (junior high-school). Transforming Takekurabe into a play, "coeducation" is directly linked to the direct, bodily experience of young boys and girls sharing the same space inside the post-war classroom. In this context, how was Ichiyo's novel received and understood? Let us take into consideration this issue in the next section.

2. Education for Democracy and Takekurabe

In the first act of the school-play Takekurabe, after the conversation between Midori and the brush-maker's wife, Shotaro appears, and apologizes for the fight that took place in his absence at the Senzoku Shrine. This episode is described in chapter 6 in the original. The second act includes the contents of chapters 12 and 13 in the original, that is, the episode where Shin'nyo's geta strap breaks right in front of Midori's house. The narrator's explanation from Ichiyo's novel is leftout, but otherwise the play follows the story in the novel quite closely, focusing on the protagonists' feelings: Midori wants to help Shin'nyo and finds a piece of cloth to replace the torn strap, but cannot bring herself to talk to him, and sadly looks at him from the side.

The last act describes the events that happen at Otori Shrine's summer festival in the vicinity of the brush-maker's shop, events that are included in chapters 14 and 16 of the original. From Shotaro and Sangoro's conversation, the reader finds out that Midori is going to become a courtesan; right afterwards, Shotaro meets Midori, who is now wearing her hair up, like an adult. This is where she confesses that she really hates growing up; this episode hints at the unique characteristics of Yoshiwara, and points at its cruel rules; let us note that this type of information is perceived as appropriate for a school play here. Further on, Sangoro tells Shotaro that Shin'nyo is going to go to "a school for Buddhist priests"; the latter concludes "We're all growing up", and the play ends.

In the pre-war period, the pleasure quarters of Yoshiwara were considered a place that children needed to be separated from, but in the post-war Takekurabe this topos is introduced as such. This has to do with the abolition of official prostitution, carried out under the supervision of the American GHQ. The general attitude underlying the "translated" Takekurabe is one of self-examination, where a critical look is directed at Yoshiwara, as a symbol of restricted freedom and anti-democratic behavior belonging to a pre-war Japan (women who were sold into pleasure houses could not move freely and were forced to sell their body basically for life).

One more aspect that I would like to take into consideration here is the way in which Ichiyo's novel changes into a play, an aspect that influences the contents directly, and brings to the foreground the love stories developing between the characters.

First, let us take a look at the first act. In the original, Midori's feelings of discontent towards Shin'nyo's cold behavior are introduced as the former's monologue, while in the play, the same content is presented as a conversation between Midori and the brush-maker's wife. As part of this conversation, the brush maker's wife says: "I'm sure that in his heart Shin'nyo really loves you", something that in Ichiyo's novel is only hinted at as a faint possibility. In the next scene, when Shotaro comes and apologizes for the fight, we can see the same tendency. Shotaro too speaks out Shin'nyo's feelings in a very direct way, telling Midori: "Fujimoto (Shin'nyo) likes you very much, Midori. I mean it!". In the play, the following explanation appears too, with regard to Shotaro's words: "This line should include a couple of different nuances: first of all, of course Fujimoto likes Midori, because Shotaro himself likes her; in declaring his friend's love for Midori, Shotaro is actually confessing his own." Shotaro's feelings are hinted at in the original too, but in the school-play nothing is leftto the imagination.

The third act is very similar, in this respect. At some point, Shotaro says: "Poor Midori, she's going to be a courtesan...", and his friend Sangoro replies: "That's good, isn't it? If she becomes a courtesan then... (he stops) Oh... yes... well, Sho... you and that girl...". What in the original was offered as a possibility that only the protagonists were faintly aware of, in the play becomes common knowledge among all the children. Also, the fact that chapters 12 and 13, where Midori and Shin'nyo cannot bring themselves to talk to each other and feel the pangs of love, are rewritten to take up all of the second act indicates the fact that teenage love was meant to be a central theme in the school-play Takekurabe.

As I mentioned above, the school play Takekurabe was published in the "Jitsuen Shido Mohan Gakkogeki Zenshu"; in the foreword, the representatives of the Japanese School Plays Association encourage the children to look at the scripts included in the collection as works that "closely describe your world and your problems". Furthermore, Takekurabe is used as an example, and the pupils reading it/ acting it on stage are expected to internalize its contents. This is another proof of the role played by the post-war situation in the "translation" of the novel.

It is a well-know fact that one of the things that embodied the postwar democracy was the importance given to the freedom of expressing one's feelings of love and acting accordingly. In imperialistic Japan, whose underlying ideology was of feudalistic origins, the most important problem that each individual had to face was that of the "family"; as part of the patriarchy-based system, the individual had to follow the instructions received from the head of the family, even if they came into conflict with his or her personal beliefs and aspirations. In the newly born post-war democracy, love and the respect for individual freedoms were seen as one and the same thing, and that is why the school-play Takekurabe too places great emphasis on the topic of teenage love.

Moreover, the drastic changes occurring during the post-war period are also linked to the fact that Ichiyo's novel was translated as a play. In the first volume of education guidelines (Gakushu Shido Yoryo Kokugokahen, abbreviated further as Shido Yoryo, 1947 edition ) published after the war (in 1947) from the Ministry of Education, the following items are mentioned as "the five main tasks of language education": "1. Speaking; 2. Writing (composition); 3. Reading (including literature); 4. Calligraphy (study of kanji, etc); 5. Grammar."

It is interesting to note that "speaking" is mentioned as the number one task of language education; in the Shido Yoryo, the speaking ability is directly linked to the democratization of the country: "In order to build a democratic state, it is of utmost importance to educate people who are able to speak up, share their own opinions with others and engage in fruitful discussions." One method for reaching this task was the school-play; by adding "speaking" as one essential task of language education, children were given an active role to play in the classroom, clearly different from the one-way communication, from teacher to student, that the former education style was based on. School festivals and other similar events were encouraged, and pupils became more and more actively involved in school-plays.

As we can see, the way Takekurabe's contents were altered in the translation was in close connection with the beginning of mixed education, and at the same time served the purpose of bringing to the fore the very actual problem of love, with its connection to individual freedom. On the other hand, the form the translation took, i.e., a school play, was meant to encourage the children's active involvement in self-expression, a necessary step towards "democratization".

Next, I would like to direct my attention to the fact that, while placing in the spotlight the teenagers' feelings for each other, the school play Takekurabe also clearly points out the fact that their destiny is ultimately decided by external factors. The first two acts depict the protagonists' love as a very personal feeling, while the third act emphasizes the fact that external factors bar the way to a happy ending. The drama of unfulfilled love is stressed as the main topic of the play by the use on stage of the song Shinobu Koiji,10 which talks about the sad love of a courtesan; the song is introduced as background music twice in the play, once at the very end, as the curtain falls; also, Shota is heard humming the tune at some point during the play.

The school-play Takekurabe is constructed so as to make pupils identify themselves with the protagonists; it encourages them to see both love, and romantic disappointment as their own problems, but most of all, it makes them experience by proxy the cruelty of external factors that can change one's destiny regardless of what the individual can or wants to do. This re-interpretation of Takekurabe has as one of its purposes the need to include in children's education a view that is critical of the past. The critical attitude is thus stimulated, by presenting the young readers with the story of similar youngsters, whose destiny is controlled by somebody other than themselves.

3. Democratization/ Oblivion

In the post-war period, the circulation of Ichiyo's text diversified: it was included in Japanese high-school textbooks, adapted as children's literature, published as manga in a collection of children's books, made into a movie, etc. The indelible connection between Takekurabe and education was established when the text was included as compulsory reading in the high-school textbooks- for the first time in 1952, in Kogakusha's Koto Kokugo 3; after that, it appeared in numerous other textbooks from different publishing houses.

The fragment quoted in the textbook begins:

Both Shin'nyo and Midori attend the same Ikuei school.11

This is the first sentence in chapter 7. At the time of the publication, the so-called "teaching materials for girls" were one of the problems that textbook editors had to deal with; also, even though high-schools were not yet coeducational, in order to make sure that both girls and boys were treated equally, everybody was expected to use the same type of (unisex) textbook. These considerations are reflected in the chosen quotation, too. Let us also note that the excerpts inserted in the textbook, i.e., chapter 7 and the encounter between Shin'nyo and Midori in front of Daikokuya described in chapters 12 and 13, correspond to those "translated" in the school-play Takekurabe.

We can have a glimpse into how the novel was used in classroom education by looking at the exercises the students were expected to do after reading the text: "How are Midori, Shin'nyo and Chokichi's characters depicted?", "What are Shin'nyo's feelings towards Midori? How about Midori's feelings towards Shin'nyo?". In other words, the students are expected to focus on the protagonists' psychology, what they think and feel, what they act like, etc. The focus on Midori and Shin'nyo's inner life corresponds with one of the aims of mixed education, "fostering the ability to understand the opposite sex". In one of the guidebooks containing sample lesson plans, educators are instructed to encourage students "to discuss freely what they thought and felt while reading the novel"12. In the course of time, the excerpt from chapter 7 disappears, and only chapters 12 and 13, renamed Amayadori [Shelter from the Rain] are included in the textbooks, which is another indication of the fact that fostering a democracy-oriented individual was the main purpose of postwar education. As Sato Izumi also notes: "Without using the literary discourse, including that of the textbooks, it would have been impossible for the intellectual concept of modern individual to spread as much as it did"13, literature played a very important role in nurturing the modern ego.

The other forms and shapes that Takekurabe took within the frame of school education also point to the democratization efforts carried out in the classroom. For example, in the manga version of the novel (adapted by Takeda Masao, and included in a series of books for children that school libraries were recommended to buy), an episode that did not exist in the original is introduced; in this episode, children are depicted as taking part in a student festival of the arts (reflecting the reality of the post-war school). In the same comic strip, Midori is said to be very good at acting, and she shows her skill at local festivals, while in the original text she was actually studying the arts in order to become a good courtesan. Thus, the unique characteristics of Yoshiwara recede into the background, and Midori is introduced merely as a "young girls from the traditional shopping and entertainment districts of Tokyo". The main characteristics of the "new" Midori are summarized in the following two frames (figures 1 and 2):

In short, she is depicted as someone who wants to solve the misunderstandings between the omote-machi and yoko-cho; her change of attitude in the second half of the manga is also put down to the fact that "everybody is fighting, so Midori is in a bad mood".

Koyama Shizuko points out that "The equality between sexes was perceived on the basis of a specific view about gender"14. In the discussions about girls' education, an argument that surfaces time and again is that, as opposed to boys, who "like to fight", girls are "instinctively peace-loving", due to their maternal instincts15. In the comic strip, Midori is made to embody this very desirable female characteristic, which had been brought as an argument in favor of coeducational schools. In other words, Midori and the others were re-interpreted in the translation of Takekurabe as both characters that the students could identify with, and characters that they should learn from.

The ideology behind the way Ichiyo's novel was "translated" or fragmentarily quoted within Japan's post-war education is an issue that cannot be ignored. The novel, as it was first re-written as children's literature, includes a rather contradictory view of Yoshiwara, the environment where the young protagonists live, and tries to emphasize the fact that its reality belongs strictly to a retrograde past. Still, as time goes by, we can see that Takekurabe gradually becomes more and more a usual part of school education, and is used to support post-war education tasks such as the nurturing of individual freedom, and the promotion of democratic values. As part of this process, many of the original text's aspects sink into oblivion. As Takekurabe goes on to become one of the stories included in many a collection of children's literature, it loses its capacity to turn a critical eye on the past- which is actually one of the main problems of the Japanese post-war period as a whole.

Nowadays, when reading Takekurabe, children are simply encouraged to empathize with the protagonists- a type of reception that has its roots in the post-war years. When looking at Ichiyo's novel as it is read and understood in contemporary society, one cannot help but wonder if its place really is in a collection of children's literature. But an even bigger question that must wait for its answer is what new meanings will the everchanging relationship between society and literary text bring to Takekurabe in the future?

Footnote

1 Translated from Japanese by Irina Holca (Osaka University).

2 Koduki Kagetaka, Jido Tosho Ken'etsu ni tsuite, in "Jido Bunka Jo", Nishimura Shoten, 1941.

3 More details in Komori Yoichi's Kenpo, GHQ, Kyoiku Kihon Ho, in the volume "Sengo Nihon Studies 1; 40-50 Nendai", Tokyo, Kinokuniya Shoten, 2009. Komori states that the use of the plural "we" in this edict, as opposed to the imperial "I" used in the previous prescript, is one indication of the movement towards democratization.

4 p. 419-420. All quotations from Takekurabe are from The Complete Works of Higuchi Ichiyo, Tokyo, Chikuma Shobo, 1994, vol. I.

5 Tajima Yoshio, Takekurabe, in "Jitsuen Shido Mohan Gakkogeki Zenshu", Tokyo, Shogakukan, 1950.

6 Takeda Masao, Shueisha, Tokyo, 1995.

7 Koyama Shizuko, Danjo Kyogaku no Jisshi, in "Sengo Kyoiku Jenda Chitsujo", Tokyo, Keiso Shobo, 2009.

8 For example, in the Tensei Jingo column of the morning edition of the Asahi Shinbun newspaper (June 2, 1947), coeducation is mentioned as a means of "doing away with the inequalities between sexes", and of "eradicating the belief that men are superior to women", in order to "break away from the feudalistic past, and promptly walk on the path towards democratization." Despite the public support, discussions drag on, and the reform was therefore much delayed.

9 The following articles explain the Ministry of Education's policy vis-à-vis coeducation: Shingaku Seido no Jisshi ni tsuite (in "Hatsugaku vol. 50", 06.02.1947), or Shingaku Seido Jisshi Junbi ni Kansuru Ken (in "Hatsugaku vol. 63", 17.02.1947). These articles can be consulted in "Kindai Nihon Kyoiku Seido Shiryo vol. 23", Tokyo, Kodansha, 1957.

10 The following excerpt from the song is quoted in the play: "Our secret love was short-lived/ We will probably never meet again/ Hide your face, the tears have ruined your make-up/ And liquor doesn't help at all".

11 The Complete Works of Higuchi Ichiyo (see above), Vol. 1, p. 419.

12 Shinsen Kokugo 1 Kyoju Sankosho, Chuto Kyoiku Kenkyukai, 1954.

13 Bungaku to Iu Rinen: Sengo Shoki Sono 1, in "Kokugo Kyokasho no Sengoshi", Keiso Shobo, 2006 p.15.

14 previously quoted work, p.20.

15 Sekiguchi Takakatsu, Suzuki Hidekazu, Kyoiku Kihon Ho no Seiritsu (2), in "Hokkaido Daigaku Kyoiku Gakubu Kyoiku Seido Kenkyushitsu Kenkyu Shiryo", 1968, October, Vol. 2.

References

REFERENCES

1. Higuchi Ichiyo, (1994), The Complete Works of Higuchi Ichiyo, vol. I, Tokyo, Chikuma Shobo.

2. Koduki Kagetaka, (1941), Jido Tosho Ken'etsu ni tsuite, in "Jido Bunka Jo", Tokyo, Nishimura Shoten.

3. Komori Yoichi's Kenpo, GHQ, Kyoiku Kihon Ho, in"Sengo Nihon Studies 1; 40-50 Nendai", Tokyo, Kinokuniya Shoten, 2009.

4. Tajima Yoshio, (1950), Takekurabe, in "Jitsuen Shido Mohan Gakkogeki Zenshu", Tokyo, Shogakukan.

5. Takeda Masao, (1995), Takekurabe, in "Sekai Meisaku Chohen Manga Series", Tokyo, Shueisha.

6. Koyama Shizuko, (2009), Danjo Kyogaku no Jisshi, in "Sengo Kyoiku Jenda Chitsujo", Tokyo, Keiso Shobo.

7. Tensei Jingo, (1947), in "Asahi Shinbun", July 2, morning edition, Tokyo.

8. "Kindai Nihon Kyoiku Seido Shiryo", vol. 23, Tokyo, Kodansha, 1957.

9. "Shinsen Kokugo 1 Kyoju Sanko-sho", Tokyo, Chuto Kyoiku Kenkyukai, 1954.

10. Sato Izumi, "Kokugo Kyokasho no Sengoshi", 2006, Keiso Shobo, Tokyo.

11. Sekiguchi Takakatsu, Suzuki Hidekazu, Kyoiku Kihon Ho no Seiritsu (2), in "Hokkaido Daigaku Kyoiku Gakubu Kyoiku Seido Kenkyushitsu Kenkyu Shiryo", Sapporo, October 1968, Vol. 2.

12. "Gakushu Shido Yoryo Kokugoka-hen", Tokyo, MEXT, 1947.

13. "Koto Kokugo 3", Tokyo, Kogakusha, 1952.

14. Muramatsu Sadataka, (1940), Takekurabe, in "Gendai Meisaku Jidoban", Tokyo, Nihon Bungakusha (publication forbidden).

15. Muramatsu Sadataka, (1948), Takekurabe, in "Shonenshojo Bungakushu", Tokyo, Sansui Shobo.

16. Mori Ogai, Koda Rohan, Saito Ryokuu, Sannin Jogo, in "Mezamashi So", Tokyo, April 1895.