Abstract
This article assesses the changing perceptions of the goddess Durga in Java in the tenth to the fifteenth centuries C.E. From an early perception of her as a beneficent goddess, slayer of the demon Mahisa and protector of welfare and fertility, we see later portrayals of her with a frightful countenance and a predilection for graveyards. This change is traced through the mythology to poorly understood Tantric practices that deteriorated into black magic and the coercion of the goddess's power for evil purposes, causing her image in Java to become tarnished and turning her into an evil demon. Keywords: Durga-Mahisasura-Tantrism-Javanese mythology-antiquities
RCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS in the form of statues of the goddess (bhatar) Durgd, Durga the destroyer of Mahisagura, are quite numerous in Java. The oldest of these statues is estimated to date from around the eighth century C.E., while the most recent is from about the fifteenth century. On the basis of their characteristics and of the area where they were found, these Durga Mahisasuramardini statues can be divided into two large groups: those from the Central Javanese era, dating to between the eighth century and the beginning of the tenth century, and those of the East Javanese period, which date between the middle of the tenth century and the fifteenth century C.E.
The Central Javanese period is very rich in archaeological remains (especially from early Hindu-Buddhist times), though relatively lacking in written data. A large number of Durga Mahisasuramardini statues from this period have been found, but these finds are not balanced by written, i.e., literary, sources from which the religious concepts that underlie the statues can be ascertained. The East Javanese era is relatively richer in such sources, and for this reason this paper is confined to the concept of Durga between the tenth and the fifteenth centuries C.E., when political power had shifted to East Java.
THE EAST JAVANESE DURGA STATUES
Between 1980 and 1985, seventy-three complete statues of Durga Mahisasuramardini and a large number of fragmentary ones were found in various places in East Java. These statues generally represent the goddess in resplendent attire, standing in various poses (abhanga, samabhanga, and tribhanga) ' on the back of a buffalo (mahi,sa) and having variously two, four, six, and eight arms, the hands of which hold different weapons: cakra (wheel), sarha (snail shell), dhanu (bow), and sara (arrow) (SANTIKO 1992, 36-37). Statues with eight arms were the most numerous (fifty-eight), while only three statues with two arms, ten with four arms, and seven with six arms were found.
Durga is usually depicted as a beautiful, slender goddess, graceful and smiling (figure 1). Her statues from the East Javanese period have a special trait in that her hair is long and hangs loose. On the other hand, there are some statues of Durga Mahisasuramardini of the Majapahit period (thirteenth to fifteenth century). On these she has long canine teeth, a grimacing face and frightful, protruding eyes (see figure 2). Examples include the statue from Candi Rimbi near Jombang, dating from about the fourteenth century, and ones from Bojonegoro and from Sampang in Madura (SANTIKO 1992, 30-40).
Accompanying figures of Durga Mahisasuramardini are the buffalo (mahisa), lying with its face to either the left or the right, and an asura (a kind of giant in human form, though much smaller than Durga), either emerging from the buffalo's head or sitting or standing quietly on its head or hindquarters. This kind of Durga Mahisasuramardim statue depicts a particular mythological event, the final scene of the combat between Durga and Mahisasura, the king of the asura in the form of a mighty buffalo (EDI SEDYAWATI 1993, 1-2). According to some Pura,nas, especially the "Devi Mahatmya" of the Marta,n,deya Pura,na, Durga fights an asura who has adopted the shape of a buffalo and troubles the lives of both men and gods. Durga succeeds in killing Mahisasura, who is then decapitated (or sometimes has his body pierced with a lance [trisula]). When the mahi,sa lies dying, the asura in human form suddenly appears from the buffalo's head or body and vainly attacks Durga. In Indian statues depicting the last battle, Durga may be accompanied by her vehicle (vahana), a lion (AGRAWALA 1963; HARLE 1971-72; LIPPE 1972; BANERJEA 1974). This representation of battle and violence is less common in East Javanese Durga statues, in which the goddess usually touches or caresses the asura's hair, who in turn is pictured politely greeting her (anjali) with a happy and peaceful countenance.2 The lion vehicle is absent in these Javanese examples.3
Temples exclusively devoted to the goddess Durga, such as those in India, have not been found in Java. Rather, both from previous reports and from a number of Durga statues found in situ, it can be inferred that Durga Mahisasuramardini statues were always placed in the northern niches or cella of Saiva temples.
DURGA IN INDIA
Who then is Durga and why does she fight Mahisasura? In Hinduism gods are thought to possess a certain energy or power (atti), which they need to fulfill their tasks. This energy often manifests itself as the female counterpart or spouse of the god in question. Thus thesatkiof Siva is calledParvati Durga, or Kali, while Visnu's sakti is Laksmi, and that of Brahma is Saraswati. Especially thesatkiof Siva is worshiped in its various aspects; the aspect santa (calm) of Siva'ssaktimaterializes as Parvati or Uma, his anger (krodha) manifests as Durga, and his fierceness (trura) as Kali. Although each of these aspects is worshiped for its own reason, in Tantrism Siva's power, expressed in Durga, and his cruelty, expressed as Kali, are often mixed, so that Durga often acquires the characteristics of Kali.4
In the oldest Indian religious texts, the Vedas, Durga is not mentioned. A similar name-Durgi-is found in a younger poem, used to worship the god Agni. This poem is part of the Taittiriya Ara,nyaka (forest texts). Clearer information comes from the Mahabharata, especially parva (book) 4, the B/ii,sma parva, and parva 6, the Virata parva. In the Bhi,sma parva, Arjuna strongly desires to vanquish his enemies, the Kaurava. In order to gain victory, Arjuna worships Durga by reciting songs of praise (stuti) to her the night before the battle (AVALON 1973, 51-52). In the Virata parva of the Mahabharata, Yudhisthira recites another song of praise to Durga in his heart, asking for her protection while on his journey to Virata (AVALON 1973, 150-53).
A fully developed idea of Durga is only found in the Puranas, the sacred books of Hinduism. She was not originally an Aryan goddess, as can be discerned from her characteristics, from the place where she is found, and from some of the rituals performed for her. Rather, she was a protectress (gramadevata) of the original inhabitants of the area around Mt. Vindya, including the Sahara, Barbara, and Pulinda peoples. This indigenous goddess was subsequently adopted by the Aryans, who first, in the Hariyamsa Purana of the fourth century C.E., considered her to be an adopted sister of Visnu and later saw her as Siva sakti (KUMAR 1974; SHULMAN 1980).
In thePuranasand the later Tantras, Durga had become the most important goddess of the adherents of Saivism and Saktism.5 The three things that are often pointed out about her there are that she vanquished the buffalo asura, that she rules the vegetable world, and that she has power over infectious diseases. Of these, her conquest of the asura is primary, as will be discussed below.
That she rules over plants and is the goddess of fertility is attested to in the aforementioned song "Devi Mahatmya" (11.43-48), which first appears in the Markan.deya Purana. AGRAWALA has translated these lines as follows: 11.43. And again when rain and water shall fail for a hundred years, propitiated by the Munis I shall be born on the earth but not of the womb.
11.44. Then I shall behold the Munis with a hundred eyes, and so people shall glorify me as the Hundred-eyed One.
11.45. At that time, O gods, I shall support the whole world with life sustaining vegetables, born out of my body, until the rain sets in again. Then I shall be famed on earth as Sakambhari. (1963, 139-41) Thus, in this song, Durga is Sakambhari, who aids people by providing the vegetation they need during a drought.
One incarnation of Durga as ruler over plants, an incarnation worshiped in the Bengal area, is Vana Durga. Several goddesses in whose form she incarnates (e.g., Rupasi, Ruaswari, Gundi, and Thakurani) are worshiped in specific trees, among them the banyan and the sal (salavrtsa; Vatica robusta). There are also goddesses who are worshiped at home in connection with their relationship with plants and fertility, among them Laksmi.6 Archaeological evidence from the Kausambhi and Ujjayini areas in India show that in the third century s.c.E. Laksmi was already considered a fertility goddess. These finds include, among others, a statue of Laksmi standing on top of a lotus bloom (padma) and a relief showing her being bathed by two elephants. Both the lotus and the elephants are fertility symbols (BANERJEA 1974, 110-11).
The reason Durga was considered the ruler of plants useful to mankind may have been that the "Devi Mahatmya" was part of both Saktism and Saivism, sects for whom Durga was the primary goddess. As such she would automatically have authority over various aspects of human life.7 Another aspect of Durga is that of ruler over infectious diseases, a role played by several goddesses in India. On the one hand these goddesses protect people from diseases, especially the very much feared smallpox and cholera, and on the other hand they themselves spread these diseases when angry and dissatisfied with human conduct. In North India such a goddess is Sitala Devi, also known as Vasanti Candi, Ai, and Thakurani (BHATTACHARYA 1977, 53-54). In South India several figures are regarded as spreaders of disease, among them Marianna or Mari, while in the Bengal area the above-mentioned Rupasi, Ruaswari, Gundi, and Thakurani are believed to spread infectious diseases among children, and are worshiped to protect children from such diseases (BEANE 1977, 56-57). Vana Durga, then, of whom these goddesses are manifestations, can be said to represent two aspects of Durga simultaneously (SANTIKO 1992, 199-200).
Then there are several gramadevata (village fertility goddesses associated with smallpox, cholera, and cattle diseases [STUTLEY and STUTLEY 1984, 10]) plus a group of goddesses-known as children of Durga-named Halima, Malini, Vrnila, Arys, Palala, and Vaimitra, who rule over childhood diseases and at the same time act as protectresses of children (BHATTACHARYA 1977, 55-56; SHULMAN 1980, 245-80).
In both North and South India Kali and Durga are often venerated as rulers over disease, which they spread when angered. As was pointed out above, Durga and Kali control all aspects of human life, including disease; furthermore, in several places Durga has become mixed with the gramadevata who, as we have seen, react similarly when angered (VENKATARAMANAYYA and SUBRAHMAN 1941, 60-61).
As mentioned above, one important feature of Durga is her role of conqueror of the asura and other demonic beings. The tale of the destruction of the asura and their king Mahisasura is known as the Devi Mdhdtmya Purana or Durga Saptasati. This story first appeared in the Markandeya Purana, which was composed in the sixth century C.E. The story, in brief, is as follows: The gods were often troubled by the asuras, lead by their ruler Mahisasura, who had the form of a ferocious buffalo. One day the gods, under the leadership of Brahma, came to Siva, who was speaking with Visnu. Upon hearing the god's complaints, Siva grew quite angry and a very hot glow emanated from his face. A similar heat radiated from Visnu's face and that of the other gods, so that a mountain of fire came into being that suddenly changed into a beautiful goddess, who was no other than Durga, also called Candika or Candi. The gods were very pleased to see Durga, each giving her presents of weapons and jewelry. Durga set off for the battlefield, riding a lion. There she fought the asura armies. After she had killed them all, Mahisasura, their king, attacked her. A terrible battle ensued, during which Mahisasura changed shape several times. Finally he took the form of a ferocious buffalo. Durga jumped on his back and pierced his throat with her lance. From the wound there suddenly appeared an asura in human form who attacked her. But Durga's spiritual power (sakti) was great, and she killed him. (from AGRAWAL 1963)
One interpretation of Durga's defeat of the asura is that it symbolizes her role of protecting people, especially from the consequences of war. Reference to this most important of her roles is found in her name, which comes from the Sanskrit durga (dur + gam), meaning "fort" (KUMAR 1974, 120). Durga's role is further clarified in Devi Mahatmya 12.4-7, in which it is stated that she protects those who worship her on the eighth, ninth, and fourteenth of the month, when the moon is bright. The worshippers need not fear evildoers, will not be wounded by weapons, will be protected from poverty, fire, and flood, and will not be separated from their loved ones (AGRAWALA 1963, 144-45).
In summary, the Indian conception of Durga sees her as a great goddess who offers protection from enemies and disease and assures the general welfare. She is also regarded as a fertility goddess who especially rules the vegetable kingdom. On the other hand, when displeased with her human charges she may bring the evils they fear, especially disease.8
DURGA IN JAVA
The archaeological data discussed earlier show that it was as conqueror of the asura that Durga received most emphasis in Java.9 Examination of written sources confirms that her role there was similar to the one described in Devi Mahatmya. She is worshiped mainly to gain victory over and protection from enemies, as may be seen from the following examples.
1 ) Durga was worshiped by King Erlangga, who ruled over Java during the tenth and eleventh centuries. After he fled his capital Watan Mas in the face of an attack, Erlangga went to Patakan, the village Kambang Sri, to worship a goddess in the form of a statue (bhattari arccarupa) at the Terep hermitage. He gained victory, and upon returning to his palace he promulgated the prasasti Tergp (Terep inscription) in 1032 C.E., granting the Terep hermitage tax-free status. Although the name Durga does not appear in the Patakan inscription, comparison with other data proves this bhat,tari arccarupa to be none other than Durga (SANTIKO 1992, 236-39).
2) An inscription on the back of the base of a Chamundi statue, now located in the Trowulan museum, proclaims that Sri Maharaja Kertanagara, the last ruler of Singasari (thirteenth century), ordered the worship of Chamundi, or Chamunda, in order to strengthen his position on the throne (SANTIKO 1992, 123). The way in which this worship was conducted, however, is not explained. Chamunda is another form of Kali, who is called Chamundi when grouped together with other goddesses known as matrka (mothers). This group usually consists of seven goddesses, giving them the name Saptamatrka, the seven mothers. There are also groups of three and five, however. These goddesses are the sakti (female energies) of various gods; Brahmani is that of Brahma; Varahi is that of Visnu as Varahavatara; Aindri is the sakti of Indra, and so on. In Devi Mahatmya it is told that Kali (Chamunda) and several other goddesses emerged from Durga's brow when she was angered. They then helped her slay the asura (AGRAWALA 1963, 105-13). For this reason the Saptamatrka, or Chamunda herself, are worshiped in South India and Bengal in order to obtain victory over, or protection from, one's enemies (KuMAR 1974, 111).
The statue of Chamundi from Singasari is one of the mat,rta; here the matrta form a group of three that stand between reliefs of Ganesa and Bhairava. Chamundi, the largest, is shown seated cross-legged on a corpse lying face downward. She has eight hands that hold:
To the right of the goddess, on the base, there is a large trident (trisula). Four smaller relief statues surround Chamundi:
1) To her right is a four-armed Ganesa holding in his left hand a drinking bowl made from a skull. The other three arms are broken. His throne is decorated with a chandrakapala (crescent moon and skull). He is clothed in a jacket that reaches his knees, and he has strings of small bells around his ankles. He stands on top of a pile of corpses.
2) To Chamundi's right, above Ganesa, there is a relief of a god on a fish. This may be Varahi, one of the mit.rta. This statue is smaller than that of Ganesa.
3) Also to Chamundi's right is a relief of Bhairava, of the same size as that of Ganesa. Its four arms hold:
The unclothed Bhairava dances on top of a pile of skeletons, wearing a necklace of skulls. His ankles are decorated with strings of small bells. The shape and details of this relief are quite similar to those on a large statue of Bhairava now in the museum in Leiden that has cakras (discuses) engraved on its base.
4) To the left of Chamundi, above the Bhairava relief, there is an unidentifiable, broken relief of a goddess. The small statues of goddesses represent two of thematrka This depiction is odd because, while grouped together with them, Chamundi is much larger. The inscription on her back confirms that this goddess is indeed Chamundi. The other two perhaps serve to bring additional power to the worship, so that an even better result may be achieved.
These details of the statues open the possibility that Tantric rites were practiced here. In the Bengal area Chamundi was worshiped in a Tantric rite called vasikarana, which aimed to defeat enemies (atrubali) through the use of black magic.vasikarana is actually the common name of a ritual for the defeat of enemies, a ritual taken up by adherents of Tantrism and forming part of a group of six Tantric magic rituals:
1) Stambhana, a ritual that destroys a person's physical powers. Everything involved can be done by the person performing the ritual.
2) Vasikaran, a ritual giving one control over one's enemies and all their desires.
3) Marana, a ritual through which one can kill a person or cause bodily harm.
4) Vidvesana, a way of causing enmity between people.
5) Ucca,tana, a ritual causing others to become ill, to be shamed, or to suffer material loss.
6) Santi, a ritual through which the negative influence of a person's horoscope may be neutralized.
(CHATOPADHYAYA 1978, 9; BANERJI 1978, 208-13)
It is possible, therefore, that King Kertanagara had a statue of Chamundi made as part of the matrka group, and that during its installation magical Tantric rites such as vasikaran were performed to defeat his enemies. Who these enemies were is not clear from the inscription, but considering that it is dated about 1214 Saka (1292 CE.), it is likely that they would have been the Chinese under Kublai Khan, whom Kertanagara had opposed by sending an army to Melayu (Sumatra), as well as by religiomagical means (MOENS 1924, 544; SANTIKO 1992, 133).10
Not much is known about the way in which Durga was worshiped in Java. The only source that we have for this is the manuscript Calon Arang, dating from the Majapahit era (thirteenth to fifteenth centuries). This is an Old Javanese manuscript that also contains some Middle Javanese words; it is written in Balinese script, and was translated into Dutch by Poerbatjaraka in 1926. It is a copy of an older, unrecovered manuscript, which is thought to date from the Majapahit era. The Calon Arang, which tells of events in the time of King Erlangga, can be divided into two parts. The first part is the story of Calon Arang, a witch-widow from Girah, while the second part tells of the division of Erlangga's kingdom by Mpu Bharadah. For the purposes of this paper only the first part is relevant. Briefly, the story is that Calon Arang, a witch-widow from the village of Girah, has a very beautiful daughter named Ratna Manggali. Because Calon Arang is known as a sorceress, no one dares to ask for her daughter's hand in marriage, which arouses Calon Arang's anger. In response she orders her disciples to join her in worshiping Durga in the graveyard at midnight, with the aim of killing everyone in the kingdom by spreading an infectious disease. She succeeds, and many of Erlangga's subjects die. She is finally stopped by Mpu Bharadah, the lord of the yogis who lives in Lemah Tulis (POERBATIARAKA 1926, 115-31).
Calon Arang and her disciples worship Durga twice. The first ritual is performed at night. After Calon Arang has "read her book" (read mantras?) she tells her disciples to join her in the graveyard to ask for the blessing of bhati (goddess) Bhagawati (Durga). They perform a dance during which Durga and her entourage appear and join them in the dance. Calon Arang then requests to be allowed to kill the inhabitants of the realm. Durga gives her permission, but reminds Calon Arang not to kill anyone living in the capital. After taking their leave, Calon Arang and her disciples dance and cause a commotion at a crossroads. The next day many people fall ill and die. In the second ritual Calon Arang is even angrier because she has been attacked by the king's army. She goes to the graveyard at night to wait on the goddess Durga, ordering all her disciples to dance. She brings a corpse back to life, which she ties to a tree and kills again as an offering to the goddess. The goddess Bhagawati appears and grants all of Calon Arang's requests, after which ever more people become ill and die, the disease spreading even to the center of the capital.
There are several aspects of Calon Arang's worship of Durga that deserve our attention. First, she uses black magic to vanquish her enemies. Second, it is performed in a graveyard at midnight. Third, a human corpse (here brought back to life) is Durga's offering, and fourth, Calon Arang has Durga-like characteristics in that her anger brings forth infectious diseases.
In Tantric Hinduism worship can be divided into three categories: nitya-puja is the worship of a deity, especially a protective one, which is done daily without expectation of personal profit; naimittiaka is the worship of gods without expectations of worldly profit but with the hope of becoming one with the temple's istadewata (god of one's choice); tama puja is the worship of a god or its istadevata with the aim of gaining worldly benefits. Included in the last are Tantric rituals, using the six kinds of magic (sat-larman) mentioned earlier, e.g., stambhana, vasikarana, and the like. The first five (excepting santi) are destructive in nature because they use black magic. They are known as abhicara or kruratarma (malevolent spells or violent actions). Tantrists do not like abhicara puja because they demand innocent victims. However, if the rituals are performed successfully, the worshipper will have the power and the characteristics of the deity worshiped and can "force" this deity to grant his desires (GUPTA 1972, 126, 159-61). Considering the place, time, the goddess involved, the way in which she is worshiped, and the desired goals, it can be assumed that the Tantric ritual Calon Arang and her disciples were involved in was the marana one, one of the (black) magical Tantric rituals for the destruction of one's opponents. The word ma- rana (death) is mentioned several times in the Calon Arang manuscript, although it is not clear whether this word is connected with the ritual in progress. The abhicara or krurakarma ritual-that is, the marana ritual Calon Arang performed-seems to have been successful, in that she gained Durga's powers and characteristics. Like Durga, Calon Arang in her anger spreads an infectious disease and succeeds in "coercing" Durga to grant her every request (SANTIKO 1992, 258-59).
The "Devi Mahatmya" tale referred to earlier is part of the Sakta traditions. In India, however, statues of Durga Mahisasuramardini are worshiped by adherents of both Saktism and Saivism. To which sect a particular statue of Durga Mahisasuramardini "belongs" can be ascertained from, among other things, the position of the goddess in the pantheon. In Saktism, Durga is Mahadevi or Mahaskti, a position superior to that of Siva. She is given a special temple, known as a sakupitha,tha. These are found all over India, the best known being the Khalighat temple in Calcutta (BEANE 1977, 203). In Saivism, on the other hand, Durga is Siva's "wife," and her statue occupies the cella north of Siva's temple, as can be seen in Orissa (BONER 1966). As was pointed out above, in Java statues of Durga Mahisasuramardini occupy the cella north of the Siva temple and no temple specifically dedicated to Durga has ever been found,il leading us to believe that Saktism never developed in Java. This is further supported by several literary sources, such as the katawin12 Ghatottacaraya, whereDurgais called Mahdgakti and paramasuksmatara.l3 It is also made quite clear by the position of Siva, who, as Bhatara Guru, is much higher than the goddess (SANTIKO 1992, 143-61, 293-94).
Several statues of Durga Mahisaguramardini have frightful faces, depicting the goddess with fangs and bulging eyes. These derive from the time when Durga was mixed up with Kali to become Durga-Kali, who was worshiped in Tantra-Vamacara rituals, possibly by adherents of the Siva Kapalika sect (in Java known as Siva Bhairava or Bherawapak,sa-Sewapaksa).'4 In Tantric sects in Java, Durga-Kali is often symbolically portrayed as a cruel goddess who punishes sinners in a horrible fashion. In the kakawin Ghatottacasraya, for instance, Durga is said to eat evildoers, and in the Trailokyapuri II inscription (dating from the end of the Majapahit era [1408]; see below) precisely detailed descriptions are found relating how those who disobey the regulations set forth in the inscriptions are to be punished by Durga.
THE RAKSASI DURGA ON RELIEFS
In addition to statues of Durga as the slayer of Mahisasura, there are also Durga reliefs from the Majapahit era depicted on temple walls; e.g., at Candi Tegawangi near Pare, Candi Sukuh on the western slope of Mt Lawu, and on the terrace of the Panataran temple, near Blitar. On these reliefs the goddess is shown quite differently from Durga Mahi,sasuramardini-she is tall, large, and fearsome in appearance, with fangs, bulging eyes, large nose, and long, loose, disordered hair (gimbal), and has the look of a female demon (raksasi). She dwells in graveyards, surrounded by all sorts of hideous spirits (plate 3).
Written sources from about the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, such as the Tantu Panggelaran, the Sudamala, the kidung"5 Sri Tanjung, and the Korawasrama, inform us that this raksasi Durga was none other than the penal appearance of Uma (Parvati), who was condemned because of her transgressions. In the Sudamala, Uma is unfaithful to her husband, and takes Brahma as her lover. Siva, here called Batara Guru, is both very angry and shamed, and curses her to become the rakasi bhatari Durga or Ranini for a period of twelve years. She and her escorts, among whom is the female demon Kalika, are sentenced to reside in the Setra Gandamayu cemetery. After twelve years her offense is expiated (linukat) by Sadewa, one of the Pandawa Lima (the five Pandavas), aided by Batara Guru (VAN STEINCALLENFELS 1925, 10-31).16
In the Tantu Panggelaran, Durga punishes her son, Kumara, by eating his flesh and drinking his blood. When Batara Guru sees this, he becomes very angry and condemns her to become the raksasi Durgddevi, who must remain in the patala (underworld) and expiate her sins by doing penance (tapas) there (PIGEAUD 1924, 103-104; SANTIKO 1992, 172-75).17
The Korawasrama tells of a magic book that Ganesa (Bhatara Gana) receives from his father, Siva, in which one can read about a person's past and future lives. Uma forces Gan. esa to foretell her future, but when he does it becomes known that she was once unfaithful with Surya, the sun god, and with a cowherd. Angered and shamed, Uma tears up Ganesa's book and suddenly changes into the rakasi bhatari Durga. After some time she is released by Ganesa, aided by the Tripurusi Sarasvati, Sri, and Savitri (SWELLENGREBEL 1936, 41-42; EDI SEDYAWATI 1985, 286-92; SANTIKO 1992, 178-83). The Sri Tanjung tale does not make clear how Uma changed into Durga, nor does it describe her appearance. All it says is that it happened because of her past sins, and that she looks repugnant and frightening (PRIJONO 1938).
Interestingly, this demonic Durga is quite similar to the Durga Mahisasuramardini. In the Sudamala, the demonic Durga or Ranini is asked by Kunti, the mother of the Pandava, to aid her sons in the Bharatayuddha war against their cousins, the Kaurava. Kunti fears for her son's safety, because the Kaurava are assisted by two mighty raksasas, Kalanjaya and Kalantaka.
IDEAS UNDERLYING THE Two FORMS OF DURGA
On the basis of evidence collected since 1980, we know that between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries two different conceptions of Durga were simultaneously current in Java. This gives rise to two questions. First, why are there two different physical forms of her, and second, what conceptions underlie them? The first form, from the Majapahit era and perhaps even earlier, is Durga-Kali, the goddess with the trura traits who is worshiped by adherents of the Siva Trantra-Bhairava sect (Bherava-Sivapaksa or Bheravapaksa). The second is Durgadevi or batari Durga Ranini, who is the penal incarnation of Uma (Parvati), the sakti of Siva as batara Kala. Written sources containing these two concepts reveal that each was supported by a different cultural environment: the royal court and society beyond the court, respectively.8 Durga as the primary goddess of Saivism, including her role as destroyer of Mahisasura (Durga Mahisasuramardini), was known in court circles, as can be learned from the kakawin Kalayanawanantata, the kakawin Sutasoma, the kakawin Arjunawijaya, and the prose work Calon Arang.l9 References to the ralksasi Durga are found in the stories Sudamala, Tantu Panggelaran, Sri Tanjung, and Korawasrama.
The authors of these court kakawin appear to be referring to Indian traditions, while literature originating beyond the courts is freer in these matters (EDI SEDYAWATI 1985, 220-21, 260-61, 368, 382). We can propose, then, that the idea of Durga as a Saivite goddess was current in court circles, while Durga as rat.sasi prevailed beyond the court walls. This later environment seems to have allowed a greater liberty to interpret various conceptions of Indian gods and goddesses, permitting them to develop into Javanese deities of the Tantu Panggelaran.zo For this reason it is not to be wondered at that literary works written outside the courts often portray deviant conceptions of Hindu deities, nor is it surprising that no Indian models can be found for many of the tales they contain, including stories of the rat.sasi Du rga.
However, the reason for the shift in the concept of Durga, from a supreme Saiva goddess to the fearsome demonic figure, are not as yet known, because this is not explained in the written sources. The infidelity that causes Uma (Parvati) to be cursed is curious because in India Uma is known as a faithful wife and is held up as an example to Indian women. This extraordinary change in her personality may be due to an erroneous understanding of the essence of secret Tantric ritual and of Durga-Kali as the goddess worshiped in it.
One Tantric ritual that may have been known in Java is the panca-makara-puja. In this ritual disciples (sadhaka), led by a teacher, conduct a ritual within a circle at midnight. The location should be an isolated one, preferably a graveyard, which is reminiscent of the actions in the Calon Arang tale discussed above. Both the disciples and the teacher must be within the circle, each with a female partner. Here they perform the five forbidden ma: eating matsya (fish), eating ma ,msa (meat), performing mudra (specific ritual gestures), drinking madya (wine), and engaging in maithuna (sexual intercourse). The female partners of both the teacher and the disciples should preferably be their wives, but if a wife is unable to participate, each pair must undergo a marriage ceremony called Saiva vivaha to be made into a permanent ritual couple (BANERJI 1978, 110). Only sadhaka who have attained specific levels of initiation may participate in this ritual, so that the practice will not be misused.
The panca-ma-tara-puja ritual is performed to teach the disciples selfcontrol. The five forbidden practices are specifically indulged in and at the peak of their enjoyment the participants must identify themselves with the highest deity, Siva Bhairava, and their partners with Bhairavi. This is a secret Tantric ritual, so that the practice, goal, and essence of each action are not understood by outsiders. Similarly, the secret nature of the rituals led to the mistaken idea that Durga-Kali had been unfaithful to her husband and was not fit to be placed on one level with the other gods and goddesses.
So too with other Tantric rituals in India, and perhaps in Java as well. The use of bloody offerings, which in themselves were symbolic, gave rise to a popular idea of Durga as a demonic goddess, an idea that may already have existed in ancient Java before the Majapahit era. In Java, at the end of various prasasti (inscriptions) there is a portion called the sapatha (imprecatory formula), which consists of a call upon the gods, spirits, ancestors, guardians of the compass-points, and the like to insure that the proclamation contained in the inscription be obeyed by the ruler, officials, and the people.22 As part of those formulae, Durga along with demons and spirits believed to haunt human habitations are named and asked to punish those who disobey the proclamation.
And thus Durga, the sakti of Siva, who started out as a goddess who aided humankind and was worshiped in Tantric rituals, became a demonic female rat.sasi in the popular conception. A misunderstanding of Tantric ritual by outsiders caused her image to become tarnished, turning her into an evil ral.sasi, not a goddess but a fanged queen of the dead who lives in graveyards.
NOTES
1. Abhanga: standing straight with the head and torso in one line (madhyasutra), the right or left leg somewhat bent; samabhanga: standing erect; tribhanga: standing with the body along three lines (seeLIEBERT1976, 1, 248, 301). 2. Of seventy-three statues, only ten depict fighting in any form. 3. In Java there are only two statues of Durga accompanied by her lion vehicle. One was found in Pekalongan, Central Java, and is now kept in the Museum Nasional in Jakarta (no.
152). The other consists only of fragments found in the courtyard of the Singasari temple. 4. Tantrism is a secret ritual practice full of symbolism. Its goal is the quick achievement of moll.sa (final release), if possible during the person's lifetime. Tantric ritual was applied to several religious traditions, such as Saivism, Saktism, and Buddhism. When this occurred the religious tradition was given the suffix tantra, so that we have Siva Tantra, Sakta Tantra, and Buddha Tantra (or Tantrayana).
5. Saktism is a sect of Hinduism that considers the position of the sakti to be higher than that of the gods and generally has Durga as its primary goddess. 6. In the Purnas Laksmi is called Sri-Laksmi, while in Java she is better known as Sri or Dewi Sri.
7. Saivites consider Visnu as the aspect of Siva that protects humankind and cares for the world.
8. In this she does not differ from other gods, spirits, and even rulers who display their demonic side to those who do not acknowledge their exalted status, e.g., by disobeying rules of behavior (see BERG 1951, 484).
9. In India there are nine forms of Durga that together are called Nava Durga. 10. MOENS (1924, 544) points out that Kertanagara initiation as Bhairawa may be compared to Kublai Khan's initiation as Jina, giving the two equally demonic aspects with which to face each other (see note 8). As BERG (1951, 484) points out, it is but a small step to the assumption that Kertanagara's initiation into these rites and his foreign policy were a reaction, respectively, to Kublai Khan's initiation and to his aggressive posture (cf BERG 1950, 25). 1. In the Candi Rimbi, near the city of Jombang, the primary chamber was once occupied by a statue of Parvati that is thought to have been an incarnation of Tribhuwana. Lack of supporting evidence makes it difficult to consider Candi Rimbi a Sakta temple, however. Although in Central Java the Kalasan temple is dedicated to the goddess Tara, this is a Buddhist temple and thus cannot be used to prove that the Hindu Sakta sect was present in Java.
12. A kakawin is an Old Javanese literary genre using the Indian poetic form kavya (poems related to the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) as its model. It uses a different meter from the kidung.
13. Paramasusmatara is the highest immaterial state of being. 14. It is possible that the Siva Bhairava sect arose only during the Majapahit era. From the book Tantu Panggelaran we know that the rituals performed by its adherents were very similar to those performed by the Siva Kapalika sect (LORENZEN 1972; SANTIKO 1992, 272-74). 15. The kidung is a kind of Middle Javanese literary genre. 16. Lukat or ruwat is actually a dilts (consecration) rite to wipe out klesa (sin) or mala (impurity) from the soul of the sIsya (disciple).
17. Patala is one of the regions under the earth, the abode of nagas and demons. It is also the lower world in general, not to be confused with NARAKA, the place of punishment. 18. According to P J. Zoetmulder and Edi Sedyawati, the Old Javanese belle-lettres Kakawins (see note 12, above) were part of Old Javanese court life. The authors of these poems, known as kawis, lived at the court, even though they were themselves neither royal nor noble. The Tantu Panggelaran, Sri Tanjung, Sudamala, and Korawasrama, on the other hand, lack a court (kraton) background.
19. Another aspect of Durga is that of a deity who comes to the aid of separated lovers. Javanese literary data on this aspect of her are scarce (SANTIKO 1992, 236). In the eleventhcentury Old Javanese kakawin Ghatottacdsraya, she reunites Arjuna's son Abhimanyu with his beloved wife, Ksiti Sundari, the beautiful daughter of King Kresna of Dvaravati. In the same kakawin Durga devours all of the wicked people, meaning that she destroys the evil that is loose in the world of men (WIRJOSUPARTO 1960; SANTIKO 1992, 143-61). She is also depicted
as helping unhappy lovers in the works Sri Tanjung and Kidung Margasmaya (PRI)oNO 1938, 32-45, 108-29; SANTIKO 1992, 252-53).
20. In the Tantu Panggelaran there is a story about the moving of Mt Mahameru from Jambhudvipa (India) to Java. The summit of Mahameru is the home of the gods and thus its move to Java meant that these gods moved as well and in the process became Javanese gods. 21. For example, the book Pararaton, which dates from after Majapahit's fall, reports that King Kertanagara was addicted to intoxicating drink (tier anadah sajong), though elsewhere the poet Prapanca claims that, on the contrary, the king abstained from this and the other forbidden matters. Kertanagara's indulgence was part of his participation in the cakra ritual, into which he had been initiated. This was paired with his initiation into the ten purification rituals and the eight initiations of cakra Tantrism (MOENS 1924, 530-532).
22. This custom was known beyond Java and into the Muslim era as well (cf WESSING and PROVENCHER 1987).
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HARIANI SANTIKO Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta
Copyright Nanzan University 1997