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Studies reporting the objective settlements obtained by men and women in negotiations were reviewed. Differences in outcomes were expected due to differences in perceptions, behaviors, and contextual factors between men and women. In the sample of studies, men negotiated significantly better outcomes than women. Opponent sex, relative power of the negotiator, integrative potential of the task, mode of communication and year of the study were tested as moderators of the effect. Although the overall difference in outcomes between men and women was small, none of these hypothesized moderators or several exploratory moderators reversed or eliminated this effect. The organizational significance of the findings is discussed in terms of the glass ceiling, a gender-based earnings differential and women in negotiation positions. Directions for future research in the laboratory and the field are suggested.
Negotiation occurs at, and across, all levels and types of organizations. Negotiations may involve a formal process, as in the case where individuals and groups negotiate for contracts or for the resolution of grievances. In a broader sense, however, negotiation is concerned with individuals' attempts to acquire organizational privileges and resources. These privileges and resources are not always tangible or distributed equitably in organizations.
It is estimated that managers spend as much as 20% of their time in negotiations (Baron, 1989). Thus, negotiating is a fundamental skill that must be acquired by any individual seeking to occupy a position of power, status, and responsibility. As greater numbers of women advance into upper level positions in organizations it is increasingly important to have an understanding of how gender impacts the behaviors, processes, and outcomes of negotiation. If men and women differ in their negotiation abilities, an awareness of these differences could suggest training or other interventions designed to foster understanding and equality between the sexes.
Research has drawn mixed conclusions concerning the success of women and men in negotiation (Rubin & Brown, 1975). Some studies suggest that men achieve more profits than women (Gerhart & Rynes, 1991; King & Hinson, 1994; Neu, Graham, & Gilly, 1988; Stevens, Bavetta, & Gist, 1993) while others find no differences (Kimmel, Pruitt, Magenau, Konar-Goldband, & Carnevale, 1980; Pruitt, Carnevale, Forcey, & Van Slick,1986). Gerhart and Rynes (1991) report that men negotiating for a higher salary after receiving...