ELEMENTS OF TRAUMA FICTION IN THE 9/11 NOVEL

Abstract

According to Anne Whitehead (2004:3), "the desire among various cultural groups to represent or make visible specific historical instances of trauma has given rise to numerous important works of contemporary fiction". "Windows on the World" was a famous 40,000 square foot restaurant near the top of the North Tower on the 107th floor. [...]the restaurant "Windows on the World" becomes the main setting in Frédéric Beigbeder's novel, which also keeps the name of the restaurant in the symbolic title of the novel (retained in the translated versions in many languages). [...]the author personalizes the trauma of the country, showing the multilayered aspects of the event and its aftermath. Ironically, the author of the design who wins most of the jury's voices belongs to an American-born agnostic architect Mohammad Khan. [...]the author seems to comply with the readers' expectations: alongside direct references to the event (the husband of the main character, Claire, was one of the victims), the aftermath and flashbulb memories, the discussion of the estrangement that rules the society, the consideration of the "Otherness", prejudice and hypocrisy - topics previously researched in earlier 9/11 novels - are the issues tackled in The Submission.

Headnote

Abstract The tragic events of September 11, 2001, and the aftermath resulted in the new genre - "9/11 literature." The aim of the paper is to examine features of a trauma novel and to disclose elements of trauma fiction in some of 9/11 novels. The trauma of the United States of America, the main focus of these novels, often involves the personalized dimension. The article surveys different types of trauma narratives, questions the relationship between Fact and Fiction and discusses effects of this national trauma on the life of an individual and society.

Keywords: 9/11 novel, trauma fiction, terrorism, destructive binary thinking, collective trauma, American society.

1. Introduction

The representation of trauma in fiction often faces the danger of falling into the "Fact versus Fiction" trap. The readers of this type of fiction may search for the exact representation of his/her traumatic experience, expecting to find the discussion of the similar emotions and consequences. Thus, authors who take up the topic of collective traumas, face many challenges: these novels examine transpersonal dimension of collective memory that spreads beyond the individual and across an entire culture. A trauma novel includes a definite realistic and historical dimension, and is often based on documents and testimonies. The reader of this work of fiction, Dori Laub (1992:57) argues, becomes "a participant and coowner of the traumatic event". Literary representation of massive trauma evokes "mutual recognition of a shared knowledge" (Laub 1992: 64). According to Anne Whitehead (2004:3), "the desire among various cultural groups to represent or make visible specific historical instances of trauma has given rise to numerous important works of contemporary fiction". In the trauma novel, the reconstruction of massive trauma becomes a process of restatement, during which the response to the work of fiction contains both, a personal and transpersonal dimension.

It is difficult to exactly predict the true scope of the ongoing and future effects of this traumatic experience or foresee the end of this so-called "transgenerational haunting" (Whitehead 2004:29). The "collective memory", including both flashbulb memories and fiction, can in itself become a valuable object of history (Nora 2011: 303). Dominick LaCapra (2001: 15) observes that trauma fiction can "offer significant insights [...], suggesting lines of inquiry for the work of historians". Reader-response criticism remains of significant value in the interpretation of trauma fiction. The "community of witnesses" includes several possible types of readers, when a present-day reader becomes "a learning witness" (Whitehead 2004: 8).

Grounded in the trauma theory of Cathy Caruth (1995, 1996), Dominick LaCapra (2001), Laurie Vickroy (2002), E. Ann Kaplan (2005), Anne Whitehead (2004, 2009), Pierre Nora (2011) and others, the article examines the representation of massive trauma in these 9/11 novels: Frédéric Beigbeder's Windows on the World (2003/2004), John Updike's Terrorist (2006), Don DeLillo's Falling Man (2007), Laila Halaby's Once in a Promised Land (2007), Mohsin Hamid's The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007), Edward Rutherfurd's New York (2009) and Amy Waldman's, The Submission (2011). The selection of the novels was based on the international aspect of the representation of 9/11 events; however, Windows on the World by Frédéric Beigbeder, a French author, one of the first major works on this theme, was chosen because of its highly influential character: many of the later works on 9/11 (in the English language) included similar narrative techniques. Laila Halaby's and Mohsin Hamid's novels demonstrate the attitude of the Muslim community, while the narrative of a British author, Edward Rutherfurd, demonstrates a typical realistic dimension of trauma narratives. The chosen novels, different in their narrative form and style, demonstrate diverse fields of fictional representation of September 11, 2001 events.

2. Features of the Trauma Novel

Trauma fiction is often based on the memories of experiencing a personal or collective traumatic event; thus, usually, the fictional narratives of collective traumas explore both personal and collective dimensions. A trauma narrative always includes both the reader, whose role may be that of a person in whom the victim/narrator confides or one with whom the victim/narrator shares the traumatic experience. Dori Laub (1992: 57) discusses the acknowledgement of the password, which signals the mutual recognition of shared knowledge. Often a direct reference to the setting (time and place) serves as a unifying password in the recognition of trauma.

The term "trauma novel" refers to a work of fiction that represents an emotional and/or cognitive response to profound loss, disaster, disruption, or devastations on the individual or collective level. Laurie Vickroy (2002: 4) states that trauma narrativists "sharpen victims' pain with readers, shifting between what can and cannot be revealed". Vickroy determines different approaches undertaken by trauma fiction writers: transfer of traumatic responses, an informational approach, or an empathie approach, since "literary texts can provide pathways for reader empathy" (2002: 21; emphasis mine). Analyzing stylistic devices in trauma fiction, Vickroy (2002: 30-32) emphasizes the use of symbols, metaphorical language, flashbacks, and elaboration of "the dynamic relationship between individual and collective memory" (2002: 33). Symbols, when carefully chosen, become a powerful tool in disclosing different dimensions of trauma. A trauma novel is based on different levels of the "affective memory" (Nora 2011: 307). Although different types of readers may possess different emotions, the degree of empathy is one of the factors in better understanding the scope and effects of the traumatic event. Vickroy (2002: 183-185) points out dialogism (especially, the narrator-reader dimension) as a structural element of trauma fiction, which becomes particularly significant in describing historical traumas. Making a reader experience, or rather re-experience, a traumatic event, a trauma novel, in this case, turns a reader not only into a witness, but also into a victim of a wide-scope collective trauma.

An accurate representation of trauma can never be achieved without recreating the event. Tom Toremans (2003: 339) observes that the reference to a traumatic event is an "ethical charge" present as a code in the process of rethinking or restating trauma. Facts, or elements of referential truth, are emphasized in trauma fiction. In this way, readers and critics can gain access to extreme events and experiences.

In trauma fiction, the protagonist becomes "a historical marker to unspeakable experience" and "a marker for potential change if healed" (Vickroy 2002: xiii), who expresses a unique personal traumatic experience and may also function to represent and convey an event that was experienced by a group of people. The traumatized protagonist brings to awareness the specificity of individual trauma that is often connected to larger social factors and cultural values. Often the fictional figure magnifies a historical event in which thousands of people have suffered similar violence.

Consideration of the multiple models of trauma and memory presented in the trauma novel draws attention to the role of place, which functions to portray trauma's effect through metaphoric and material means. Descriptions of the geographical place of traumatic experience may express a larger cultural context, while the physical environment offers an opportunity to examine both the personal and cultural history attached to the described landscape. Thus, in the trauma novel, the setting becomes a structural element that organizes the memory and meaning of trauma.

3. September the 11th as the Collective Trauma

September 11, 2001 started a new period in literature and history: even current events have a tendency to be viewed through the prism of 9/11. The trauma that the United States of America experienced on September the 11th, 2001 made a strong impact on the world community. The tragic events of that day and difficult aftermath have altered almost all the spheres of life, making everyone divide their lives into BEFORE and AFTER. The United States and the world entered the era of binary opposition: Us and the Other - "the sense of disarticulation we hear in the term 'US and Them' has never been so striking, at either end" (DeLillo 2001:2). People wanted to find coherent explanation of the catastrophe, which, according to Jeremy Green, resulted in "tragic realism" (2005: 94).

After the 9/11 attacks, US government and the President's Administration established many agencies organizations, the main purpose of which was to fight with terrorism. However, often the ambiguity of political actions frightens the society, which results in psychological instability and social disintegration. Frank Furedi (2006: 1) states that people "continue to live in a culture concerned with a multitude of fears. Anxiety about terror competes with fear of crime, incivility, global warming and various other routine, ambient worries". This situation has resulted in the seclusion of ethnic communities and, especially, the isolation of Muslim communities or even inter-ethnic violence. The American society was confused and bewildered; it could not comprehend the catastrophe, despite the fact that mass media provided wide-ranging discussions about the tragic events. The trauma of the country has turned into the trauma of the whole world, becoming an ever-lasting stigmatic phenomenon.

4. 9/11 Novels as Responses to Traumatic Experience

September 11, 2001, a "universally shared [traumatic] event" inspired writers to "express their feelings about what had occurred", so that readers could relate to the books "on a highly personal level" (Rufle 2008: 1). The fact that two prominent American authors, John Updike and Don DeLillo, one indirectly and the other directly, took up the task of discussing September the 11th, searching for possible answers and interpretations of the event, is in itself an important sign. Don DeLillo (2001: 7) observed that the event "was outside imagining even as it happened". The world entered the era of moral and/or physical executions: designs for punishing the evil forces have been continuously elaborated, elements of binary opposition and segregation appeared in many societies, and instead of making attempts to understand, discuss or explain, the extremism of Islamic fundamentalists was echoed in the form of the so-called "western extremism" - demonizing Islam and Muslim traditions. A. G. Noorani (2002: 23) observes that "the Spectre of Islam continues to haunt very many in the media, in academia, in the arts and in scholarship [and] few care to free themselves from its thrall". Interestingly, many contemporary authors have chosen this issue as a challenge: some tended to politicize their novels, while others expressed their wish to personalize the tragic event by placing the tragedy of the country within the boundaries of a single social unit, the family, and the microcosm of each person.

Frédéric Beigbeder, a French writer and literary critic, was one of the first to venture an international contribution to 9/11 fiction: his novel Windows on the World (2003; the English translation by Frank Wynne, 2004) deals with the multidimensional tragedy of the World Trade Center (WTC). Two plot lines and fragmented narration emphasize the fragility of human life and focus on the existential issues. Each chapter of the 120 short chapters of the novel represents a minute from 8:30 am, just before the moment the building is hit at 8:46 a.m., to 10:29 a.m., after the collapse of the WTC North Tower. "Windows on the World" was a famous 40,000 square foot restaurant near the top of the North Tower on the 107th floor. Thus, the restaurant "Windows on the World" becomes the main setting in Frédéric Beigbeder's novel, which also keeps the name of the restaurant in the symbolic title of the novel (retained in the translated versions in many languages). The main character, Carthew Yorston, comes to the restaurant with his two sons for breakfast just before the catastrophe. The tragic sense is reinforced at the very beginning of the novel: "You know how it ends: everybody dies. [...] The novelty of this story is that everyone dies at the same time in the same place" (Beigbeder 2005:1).

Frédéric Beigbeder uses the metaphor of the collapsed twin towers to describe the end of life as it had been before the events; in numerous flashforwards, he projects the aftermath - the situation often described in later 9/11 novels and discusses the society's reaction to the tragic event. Belonging to a group of the first 9/11 novels, Beigbeder's text, although much criticized for obliging the readers' desires (Versluys 2009), complicated in genre, form and style, contributes to a better understanding of the features of the 9/11 genre.

John Updike's novel Terrorist and Don DeLillo's novel Falling Man represent the most distinct features of 9/11 novel, the most significant of which is the theme of destruction. The novels discuss similar problems, yet from different angles. Although stylistically different, both novels undertake the task of explaining and describing the nature, reasons and consequences of human destruction. The novel by John Updike presents a portrait of a young terrorist, trying to focus on the reasons for a terrorist act, its causes and outcomes (both physical and psychological). Similarly to many other Americans, John Updike searches for the answers to the questions: Who is guilty for the tragic event? Who or what makes people, like the main character of this novel, commit crimes? Updike admits that he "felt he could understand the animosity and hatred which an Islamic believer would have for our [American] system. Nobody's trying to see it from that point of view" (in McGrath 2006: 1). With an astonishingly sensitive portrait of a terrorist, John Updike introduces a new character type in American fiction: a young inexperienced, but determined, terrorist.

Don DeLillo, a contemporary American author, directly discusses the tragic event and its consequences on a person's life, putting emphasis on the visualization of the ruined area and drawing parallels between the ruined outer space and the destroyed inner world of the main character. In the novel Falling Man, the main character tries to regain his identity, which was shattered on September the 11th. He is a lonely brooding figure, walking along the debris of the traumatized New York: the rundown area represents his traumatic psychological state.

Laila Halaby, an American author of two novels {West of Jordan (2003) and Once in a Promised Land (2007)), belongs to a group of writers who demonstrate an opposite point of view, focusing on the aftermath of the traumatic event. Bom in the mixed family of a Jordanian father and American mother in Beimt, Lebanon, Laila Halaby must have been aware of the estrangement that immediately after September 11 became a feature of the American society. In her novel Once in a Promised Land, the author describes the end of the American Dream for a couple from Jordan, whose idyllic American life finishes on September 11, 2001. Their family relationship and professional careers gradually deteriorate; they experience the American society's antagonism; and, finally, they start questioning the purpose and essence of their life in the United States of America in the turmoil of the 9/11 aftermath. In the novel, Laila Halaby raises social issues, discusses cultural displacement, denounces prejudices and sensitively describes an immigrant's life in post-9/11 America. In fact, the author personalizes the trauma of the country, showing the multilayered aspects of the event and its aftermath.

Similarly to Laila Halaby's portrayal of the aftermath situation, another author, Mohsin Hamid personalizes the traumatic event. His second novel, The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007), written in the monologue form of confession, explores the fear and suspicion that followed the 9/11 terroristic attacks. Using the method of "flashbulb memories", the author also presents the point of view of the Other and discusses the impact of 9/11 events on Arab identity, portraying a Pakistani man, Changez, who ardently confesses his immediate reaction to what has happened. In a straightforward way, the author of the novel discusses the outcomes of the "borrowed identity" (Mishra 2007: 5): the main character ponders on the duality of his identity in the aftermath of 9/11. Having chosen the form of a dramatic monologue, Hamid explores the deterioration of the American Dream and fight against American idols, discusses the strained relationship between East and West, discloses prejudices that rule the American society, speaks of inward transformation and, finally, questions the reversed forms of real fundamentalism.

Edward Rutherfurd's novel New York (2009) chronicles the existence of the city and describes in detail various events, 9/11 being one of them. Although this large-scope historical novel can only be partly linked to the group of 9/11 novels, the episode of the event demonstrates the informational approach. The journalistic style of the description of different moments of the memorable day and its aftermath is one of the significant features of the novel; Rutherfurd pays attention to the scene and the people's immediate reaction. Through his thirdperson narrator, the author conveys every world-wide known detail of the event and scrupulously recreates the scene, known both from the reminiscences of the witnesses and from numerous non-fictional representations of the day. Thus, Rutherfurd's novel offers an objective point of view, supplies the reader with information and rejects the personalized dimension.

Amy Waldman's novel The Submission (2011) appeared a decade after 9/11 and may be considered as a reply to the critics of 9/11 fiction who keep announcing the "death of the post-9/11 novel" (Shivani 2010: 1). Waldman, a former reporter for The New York Times, has picked up a recent topic: the decision of the authorities to build a memorial at the site of the tragedy. The main focus of the novel is the selection of the design for this memorial to the victims of September 11, 2001. Ironically, the author of the design who wins most of the jury's voices belongs to an American-born agnostic architect Mohammad Khan. Thus, the author seems to comply with the readers' expectations: alongside direct references to the event (the husband of the main character, Claire, was one of the victims), the aftermath and flashbulb memories, the discussion of the estrangement that rules the society, the consideration of the "Otherness", prejudice and hypocrisy - topics previously researched in earlier 9/11 novels - are the issues tackled in The Submission. The author concentrates on the still-existing wound of the country and speaks of the country's loss: "They'd had all lost, of course - lost the sense that their nation was invulnerable; lost their city's most recognizable icons; maybe lost friends or acquaintances" (Waldman 2011: 3). The objective point of view intermingles with the recognizable subjective one, thus, illustrating the contradicting opinions and separatism in society: "The longer that space stayed clear, the more it became a symbol of defeat, of surrender, something for 'them,' whoever they were, to mock. " (Waldman 2011: 4).

Similarly to earlier 9/11 novels, Waldman denounces the immediate reaction of many people in the aftermath of the event, and questions the stillexisting vices of contemporary society - so recognizable and so frightening - discussing the impact of the 9/11 on the Americans' attitudes toward the Muslim and immigrant communities all over the United States. Although Amy Waldman may be accused of falling into the usual trap of complying with the reading audience's demands (something that many contemporary authors have been accused of), her novel reveals the emotional upheaval in the society that seems to be still lasting and exposes the still-bleeding wound of the country or the world.

5. Features of 9/11 Fiction

Different literary interpretations of 9/11 and its aftermath demonstrate the scope of the impact of this period on the development of the novel. Emory Elliott (2006: 446) points out the fact that "American literature in the twenty-first century will be influenced by the events of that terrible day and by the ways that the United States government responded". Many critics agree that after the 9/11 events, a new era of literature has started. For example, in the article "Postmodernism and Islam: Where to after September 11," Akbar S. Ahmed (2007: 140) notices that "ideas and practice of multicultural harmony, eclecticism and juxtapositions [...] were halted in their tracks on 11 September 2001". The critic points out the symbolism "of the attack on the heart of the financial center of the Western world" and "the strike on the Pentagon, the heart of the military might of America," drawing a shocking conclusion: "postmodernism lay buried in the rubble on that fateful day" (Ahmed 2007: 140). Although the latter idea may be considered rather controversial, such opinion may demonstrate the significance of the event for different spheres of life and art. On the other hand, Ahmed's (2007:140) statement that "In many important ways September 11 was the day the new century began" is true: the tragic event initiated many irreversible changes in the American society and culture. The frustration and loss felt in the American society echoed in various forms of literary texts and crossed the boundaries of one country.

Adam Kirsch (2008: 1) points out that "The most powerful novels about September 11, 2001, in fact, may be those that treat the entire event in terms of parable, never mentioning the World Trade Center or A1 Qaeda at all". Various forms of representation of the 9/11 demonstrate the necessity to cope with the outcomes of this traumatic event. According to Michael Rothberg (2009: 2), "what we need from 9/11 novels are cognitive maps [of] how US citizenship looks and feels beyond the boundaries of the nation-state". In other words, readers expect to read about how Americans identify themselves with and how they understand "the Other". Authors of 9/11 fiction seek to present the reality of post-9/11 America without any embellishment, so that the reader is given a possibility to analyze the causes of 9/11 attacks, to comprehend the magnitude of the tragedy or even identify with the victims. Emphasizing the significance of personal surroundings, authors discuss human consciousness, moral values and attitude towards life and death, which may be approached in various ways: a description of the death of innocent people, who appeared in the wrong place at the wrong time; the focus on the emotional state of the victims' relatives, their thoughts and explanations; the death of terrorists, their reasons for choosing such destiny and their contemplations or detailed preparations for an act of terrorism.

One of the features of the 9/11 novel is the author's attempt to disclose a global conflict, which deals with the distinction between two different cultures, between obedience and faith versus American modernity and consumerism. A great number of novelists disclose the conflict between the American way of living and morality and the Islamic attitude towards culture, religion and jihad. Others choose to describe the contrast, focusing on the magnificence of modem buildings versus new images of run down areas. It can be stated that the 9/11 novel has been inspired by the social curiosity to understand what reasons led to the 9/11 catastrophe. Nadia Christelle (2007: 3) observes that readers of 9/11 literature "expect to read a meaningful story" and suggests that the readers expect to get answers to all their questions, as they believe that the book will solve all the problems and misunderstandings and would heal the wounds.

The theme of self-destmction often dominates in the 9/11 novels: the confusion felt in the society is transferred to the novel. The main character is sad, feeling lost in the society and disappointed by its moral values. The main hero is often lonely, misunderstood, seeking for answers to all his questions; he is different from the rest of society. Consequently, the inner conflict leads to self-destmction, which takes various forms: the outer destmction of the buildings becomes a replica of the inner destmction or identity crisis. However, the main character is usually described as having strong personal beliefs, and, in some texts, may even acquire a heroic dimension.

The 9/11 novel often includes criticism of the consumerist society and the overpowering role of the mass media. Novelists discuss social inequality, the lack of morality and harsh real-life situations. Thus, the aim of the 9/11 novel is to reveal the tragedy not only of one character, but of the society in general, that is to expose collective trauma. The images of the falling Towers and, later, their absence build up the imagination of the society and determine the possible attitudes to future events. The horrifying wound - the absent Twin Towers - was replaced, as Ann Kaplan (2005: 13) states, by "other images - of burning people jumping out of the Towers, of firemen mshing to rescue people [...] of the huge cloud of smoke". Mainly, these images become a part of the recollections of the witnesses and the relatives of the victims. Direct representations of the 9/11 attacks often appear in the novels - these representations are similar to the TV reports and documentaries. The horror of watching the latest news (on September 11th and afterwards) is a frequent feature of the 9/11 novel.

The personalization of the 9/11 events - the emotional/empathic approach undertaken by the authors - contributes to the sense of reliability. Readers encounter narratives about losses and tragedies, very similar to their own. Alienation, doubt and estrangement in family, community and society relations are significant features of 9/11 literature. In 9/11 novels, family relationships are often stressful: family members cannot communicate with each other and are lonely and spiritually wounded.

The 9/11 novels create a sinister atmosphere: many of them offer a direct and realistic representation of 9/11 events. The fictionalization of the tragic events is prone to obvious dangers: readers expect truthful recounts of the events, exactly like those that they have experienced and would like to find in the novels. Thus, the dimension of referential truth still remains an unquestionable prerequisite for a 9/11 novel.

6. Conclusion

The traumatic events of 9/11 have resulted in 9/11 fiction that contains both direct and indirect references to September 11, 2001. All the post 9/11 literary texts can be described according to their "closeness" to the events of 9/11. Issues described in the 9/11 novels demonstrate urgent problems of contemporary society: the novels expose the overall egocentricism of the American society, described in many ways and forms by contemporary authors, and disclose the present-day reality. Alongside the themes of terrorism or the degradation of the American society, the authors of the 9/11 novels often choose an informational approach.

By constructing different plot lines, characters and their identities, raising different issues and trying to solve urgent problems, some contemporary authors do not depart from the stereotypical recounts of the events or clichés of both victims and the representatives of the "Others" - which may be the result of meeting the reading audience's expectations and complying with the readers' demands. However, the attempts to solve seemingly still-unsolvable questions, emphasizing social, psychological and religious paradigms contribute to the long-lasting process of coping with this universal trauma. The personal dimension of the aftermath includes the ever-lasting search for one's identity and the meaning of life. Ruins of the two towers may become the ruins of the personal life, when nothing is stable and everything is put on a chance, just as in a poker game in Don DeLillo's novel Falling Man: two minutes of destruction turn into the never-ending state of deterioration.

The 9/11 novel has gone through significant transformation: from the central topic, September 11, 2001 has become a frame or a single occurrence in the plot, or even only an assumed reference. The novelists have emphasized the scene or have put a conscious distance between the historical events and literary forms, trying to build a countemarrative to the destructive narrative of the post 9/11 decade. Novels as the ones briefly discussed in this article demonstrate the interplay between reality and fiction, emphasizing the existing fragile link between the two notions.

The following features stand out in the characterization of the 9/11 trauma novel: the author's approach (informational, emotional/empathic); the role of the protagonist, which symbolizes personal and collective trauma; a nonlinear and fragmented plot and language of the 9/11 novels, which echo the fragmented flashbulb memories and describe the present state of the country; a large amount of the referential truth and the fact-fiction dimension; and, lastly, the significance of the setting, which may serve as a password among the witnesses and readers.

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