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Formulated in the 1980s and gaining prominence in the early 1990s, by the end of that decade ecofeminism was critiqued as essentialist and effectively discarded. Fearing their scholarship would be contaminated by association with the term "ecofeminism," feminists working on the intersections of feminism and environmentalism thought it better to rename their approach. Thirty years later, current developments in allegedly new fields such as animal studies and naturalized epistemology are "discovering" theoretical perspectives on interspecies relations and standpoint theory that were developed by feminists and ecofeminists decades ago. What have we lost by jettisoning these earlier feminist and ecofeminist bodies of knowledge? Are there features of ecofeminism that can helpfully be retrieved, restoring an intellectual and activist history, and enriching current theorizing and activisms? By examining the historical foundations of ecofeminism from the 1980s onward, this article uncovers the roots of the antifeminist backlash against ecofeminism in the 1990s, peeling back the layers of feminist and environmentalist resistance to ecofeminism's analyses of the connections among racism, sexism, classism, colonialism, speciesism, and the environment. Recuperating ecofeminist insights of the past thirty years provides feminist foundations for current liberatory theories and activisms.
Keywords: animal studies / antifeminism / ecofeminism / essentialism / material feminism
"What's happening in ecofeminism?" a leading ecocritic asked me in July 2009, during a seaside lunch-break at an ecocriticism conference in Taiwan. "Nothing," he asserted, answering his own question before I could interject a reply. And then he proceeded to tell me what was really exciting in feminism: Work most recently produced by scholars who had previously produced ecofeminist theory.1
What happened to ecofeminism? While various scholars outside the field have written retrospectives on its demise (Seager 2003a) and necessary recuperation (Thompson 2006), few present or former ecofeminists have taken the risk of chronicling the history of our field, its internal and external battles, and its startlingly widespread influence on the humanities and social sciences-art, philosophy, psychology, education, animal studies, cultural studies, postcolonial studies, environmental studies, ecocriticism, queer theory, and feminist-gender studies, to name a few. The fear of contamination-by-association is just too strong. After the charges of gender essentialism-accurately leveled at cultural feminism, a branch of thought in both feminist and ecofeminist theory-most feminists working on the intersections of feminism and...