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International perspectives on nation branding
Edited by Keith Dinnie and T.C. Melewar
1 Emergence of country branding
In an increasingly complex and tightly-linked world, not only companies but also countries are engaged in competition at every level. As [3] Anhholt (2002, p. 234) states, "globalization is turning the world into a gigantic supermarket" where countries compete to stimulate exports, attract tourism, foreign direct investments (FDIs), and immigration. Governments are turning to branding techniques to differentiate their country on the global stage in order to establish a competitive edge over rival countries in the belief that a strong country brand can contribute to the country's sustainable development ([18] Jaffe and Nebenzahl, 2001; [23] Kleppe and Mossberg, 2006).
It may also restore flawed international credibility, increase international political influence, and stimulate stronger international partnerships ([45] Yan, 2008). As many countries have gained awareness of the importance of their country brand, they have adopted country branding projects. A few have even enacted laws to promote their brand and established special organizations charged with coordinating private-public partnerships. Switzerland, for example, established the Presence Switzerland organization in order to coordinate and establish priorities among different entities such as Pro Helvetia, location Switzerland, OSEC Business Networks, and Swiss Tourism.
[12] Dinnie (2008) has stated that country branding is an exciting and complex but controversial phenomenon; it is exciting because there is currently little theory but a significant amount of real-world activity. It is complex because it encompasses multiple levels, dimensions, and disciplines beyond conventional branding. And, as a highly politicized activity that generates conflicting viewpoints and opinions, it can be controversial. A country brand can also be influenced in the short- or long term by major events. China's country brand, for example, was deeply affected by the 1989 Tiannanmen Square event, the SARS epidemic in 2003, the 2008 earthquake and, later that year, the Olympic Games, and then the milk scandal. Some studies ([32] Papadopoulos and Heslop, 2002) have investigated the influence of major events on the country image. The small number of longitudinal studies suggest that country image may shift slowly over time, even in the absence of major events ([11] Darling and Kraft, 1996; [5] Anholt, 2007). The majority of those studies, however, conclude that major events can help...