Book Review of the Handbook of School-Family Partnerships

Abstract

[...] a summary highlights the place of this Handbook in the context of schools' efforts to involve families meaningfully in the education process. [...] in light of the fact that this text is designed for researchers, a more consistent use of effect sizes or at least addressing effect sizes linguistically (e.g., modest effect size) would provide readers with greater specificity in understanding the size of relationships discussed. [...] an African American student in a largely White school is contributing to the diversity of that school, but the same student in a largely African American school is not.

Book Review of the Handbook of School-Family Partnerships

Matthew Ringenberg

Key Words: school-family partnerships, family, schools, education, systems theory, ecological theory, Bronfenbrenner, parents, involvement, diversity, Christenson, Reschly, families, handbook, book review

Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn once described President Harry Truman as "right on all the big things [even] if he was wrong on the little ones." The Handbook of School-Family Partnerships, published by Routledge in 2010, merits similar, but slightly higher, praise than our former president received. The Handbook succeeds in the "big things," and while it has some shortcomings, none of those shortcomings are central issues in the discussion of school-family partnerships. This is a valuable compilation of writings highlighting the conceptual, empirical, historical, and practical issues related to involving families in children's education and advancing the associated research agenda.

This review, like the Handbook, is divided into three sections. First, a critique is provided of the overall text, its value, and its compilation. Second, each chapter, in order, is discussed both for its overall content and its particular merits. Finally, a summary highlights the place of this Handbook in the context of schools' efforts to involve families meaningfully in the education process.

A handbook should be judged by its utility, readability, conceptual coherence, and perhaps most importantly, by what its authors promise. Based on those criteria, the Handbook of School-Family Partnerships is a success. The editors, Christenson and Reschly (2010), claim that this book is "appropriate for researchers, instructors, and graduate students" (p. i) in multiple related fields. This reviewer would like to add school administrators and teachers to that list. Clearly several chapters are not written for school personnel, particularly for those individuals who are not research-savvy. However, the Handbook provides many evidence-based suggestions for improving the learning environment and guidance on where to find more information. Because school personnel were not identified by the authors, later comments about a specific chapter not being appropriate for school personnel should not be taken as criticism, but rather as guidance for the reader.

The prescribed audience will find the Handbook readable. Generally speaking, the writing is of high quality. However, its readability is also due to the efforts of the editors. Most importantly, the editors selected writers with valuable experience and detailed familiarity with their subject matter. It appears that having selected and successfully recruited noted authors, they chose not to constrain those authors in their writing.

As one of the contributing authors, Carlson, noted, "there is a remarkable consensus across the chapters in this volume" (p. 407). It is remarkably coherent for an edited book, in spite of the editors' assertion that the authors were given great freedom in the structure and content of their chapters. This is perhaps a result of the editors' selection process. The authors often draw upon similar theories or refer to similar practice strategies as the foundation for their discussions. Prominent examples include Bronfenbrenner's Developmental/ Ecological Model, the EcoFIT intervention model, the resiliency literature, and the strengths perspective. Although this results in some redundancy, the overall effect is positive. The repetition gives the reader a common yet broad knowledge base and perspective from which to understand the content.

Balancing that convergence are remaining differences in terminology and conceptualization. Some authors focus on the older and more specific construct of parent involvement (in their children's education) while others focus on school-family partnerships and still others on family, school, and community partnerships. As the authors often note, these differences are not simply semantic. Fortunately, most of the authors, per encouragement from the editors, have taken pains to define their terms, providing needed guidance to newer professionals in this field.

There are three recurring issues which, if addressed differently, would result in a stronger text. First, it would have been helpful to include brief introductions to each of the three sections of the Handbook: Theoretical and Empirical Bases of Partnerships; Partnerships Across Development; and Driving the Research Agenda to Inform Policy and Practice. The rationale for the location of some chapters is less obvious than others and having an overarching view of what each section is presenting would alleviate some of that confusion. Second, in light of the fact that this text is designed for researchers, a more consistent use of effect sizes or at least addressing effect sizes linguistically (e.g., modest effect size) would provide readers with greater specificity in understanding the size of relationships discussed. Finally, several authors utilize the term "diversity" in an inaccurate manner. Diversity is a contextual term meaning variety. No one is diverse in an absolute sense. One only adds diversity when one is different from the norm or most common characteristic of a group. Thus, an African American student in a largely White school is contributing to the diversity of that school, but the same student in a largely African American school is not. More than once, diverse was used as a synonym for people of color.

Section I: Theoretical and Empirical Bases of Partnerships

In chapter one, Downer and Myers provide an important foundation and context to more fully understand the chapters that follow. Most significantly in the context of this Handbook are their definitions of key terms and descriptions of basic assumptions of Brofenbrenner's Developmental/Ecological Model as it is applied to school-family partnerships. The definitions are clear and straightforward, allowing a reader who is not familiar with either the model or General Systems Theory (from which it emerged) to understand the basic theoretical ideas on which much of the rest of the Handbook is based. Additionally, they address how this model helps explain the development of school-family partnerships over time, how the model is relevant to current political and demographic trends, and how it may be best used to structure future research.

Downer and Myer's overview is followed by Hoover-Dempsey, Whitaker, and Ice's presentation of a "model of the parent involvement process" (p. 38). This model is of great potential use to researchers and could be used to link the results of disparate studies into a more comprehensible whole. The authors provide research-based support for some of the proposed relationships and theoretical support for most of the rest. However, it would have been helpful in some places for the authors to more clearly delineate evidence-based support from theoretical propositions.

In spite of an unfortunate opening paragraph in which the authors rely on an online dictionary definition to begin their conversation about relationships, Clarke, Sheridan, and Woods provide a very readable and conceptually strong exploration of many of the essential concepts involved in school-family partnerships in chapter three. For example, when discussing "trust" (p. 66), the authors first reference supportive research to establish relevance. They then explain how trust potentially evolves and how it transitions from an element of social capital (a relational construct) to human capital (an internalized quality). This chapter also builds nicely on chapter one, using several of the defined constructs (e.g., mesosystem) and expounding further on them.

Chapters four and five are devoted to discussing diversity and cultural distinctions among and between families and the implications for school professionals, and to a lesser degree, researchers. Too often, highlighting diversity is lauded as a positive without an informed and meaningful discussion of how people are different and what the implications are. Okagaki and Bingham avoid these pitfalls in chapter four. They identify critical issues (e.g., literacy development) in which parents of different cultural backgrounds meaningfully differ, give specific examples to support their assertions, and root the discussion in relevant research. An example of one of these cultural differences is how low socioeconomic status (SES) families emphasize literacy skills as compared to middle class parents. Low SES parents gave greater emphasis to basic literacy skills (e.g., learning the alphabet) while middle class parents tried to expose children to literacy activities (e.g., parents reading to children) and emphasized enjoyment of reading. In chapter five, Hill tackles the broader topic of culturally based worldviews. Although she is not able to be as specific in her examples, Hill also addresses content that is critical for teachers and administrators to understand. For example, African American families send their children to an educational system mostly administered by White professionals. Within that setting, African American "authoritarian and no-nonsense" (p. 107) discipline often strikes White teachers as overly harsh. Hill offers beneficial explanations for that discipline, such as its rootedness in African culture, spirituality, and the realistic assessment of parents that their children are less likely to be given "second chances" for inappropriate behavior.

Section II: Partnerships Across Development

Dearing and Tang, in chapter six, structure their discussion of the home learning environment around a conceptual model of that environment. This model is largely compatible with the model of the parent involvement process proposed in chapter two, albeit more specific. Throughout the chapter each of the major constructs is explored in detail, with cross references to theoretical underpinnings and past research. This chapter is designed primarily for researchers. However, Dearing and Tang emphasize key, research-supported constructs in a manner that school professionals will find useful, suggesting how to engage parents and to encourage them in effectively supporting their children's learning at home. One example is that when parents both teach reading skills and share book reading, their children have better long-term outcomes than those parents who only do one or the other.

Reynolds and Shlafer present the results of a study of the Chicago Child-Parent Center Program (CPC) and generalize those results, along with some related research, to communicate how parent involvement is and is not beneficial in preschool. They are very careful in their conclusions to clarify the manner in which parent involvement is beneficial (as an indirect effect) and the limitations of parent involvement research (e.g., lack of consensus in defining parent involvement). This chapter provides useful information for researchers and theorists. It may be more difficult, however, for school professionals to utilize directly.

In chapter eight, Ginsburg-Block, Manz, and McWayne discuss a three factor model of family involvement that is empirically derived and verified. The factors are home-based involvement, school-based involvement, and home- school communication. This chapter has several strengths worth noting. The authors are very specific in describing the effect sizes of the relationships between family involvement and parent outcomes, child academics, and other relevant child behaviors (e.g., school attendance). Moreover, specific cultural differences regarding the types of family involvement most closely related to positive outcomes are discussed, along with empirical support and plausible interpretations.

Although Webster-Stratton and Reid address how to improve school readiness broadly, chapter nine is more an in-depth case study of one particular program, the Incredible Years Parent, Teacher, and Child Training Series (IY). The level of program detail provides the reader a very clear picture of IY and provides anyone who is considering such a program with enough information to make an informed decision about it. This clarity is facilitated undoubtedly by one of the authors also being the developer of IY. The authors provide empirical support for most of their assertions. In other cases, they appear to be speaking from relevant experience. These two, combined, result in a convincing case for the program, however it would be clearer to distinguish between empirical and anecdotal evidence and to also address effect sizes.

Stormshak, Dishion, and Falkenstein present the EcoFIT Model in chapter 10, an intervention approach that targets the entire family. As implied by the name EcoFIT, the model is flexible. As the authors explain, "we tailor our interventions with children and families to fit their current family circumstances" (p. 231). The idea behind this strategy, that treatment is more effective when individualized, both makes intuitive sense and is supported by intervention research. However, the strength of the program is also a challenge to explain parsimoniously. An intervention that varies substantially based on individual circumstances is by nature diffuse. The authors partially overcome this challenge by explaining the philosophy behind the EcoFIT Model and the core components of it and by providing one or two strong examples. Additional examples to illustrate other nuances of the model would have gone even further in overcoming those challenges.

In chapter 11, Albright and Weissberg provide a broad overview of existing programs designed to promote social and emotional learning in children. Examples of social and emotional learning include improved self-esteem and pro-social behavior. This chapter includes two very helpful tables, one listing specific programs, another specifying the qualities a program should have. Unfortunately, in some parts of the chapter the authors rely on generalizations that are only beneficial to someone entirely new to this field of study.

McNeely, Whitlock, and Libbey begin by identifying their goals for chapter 12: defining school connectedness; explaining its relationship to school-family partnerships; and finally, identifying the circumstances in which it fosters positive outcomes. Using the authors' stated goals as criteria for judging, this chapter is a success. Of particular interest is the discussion of how to define school connectedness. Many researchers offer definitions focused on students' quality of performance or behavioral measures that result from feelings of affiliation with the school. A second school of thought treats social connectedness as a psychological state. The authors present a convincing argument for the latter definition and use it effectively throughout this chapter.

Kaiser and Stainbrook convey an array of useful information in chapter 13 regarding how families and schools can work together to support children with disabilities, primarily disabilities associated with communication skills in preschool children. Noteworthy among that information are a brief history, the use of the overarching Collaborative Communication Model, and thought-provoking explorations of issues such as naturalistic interventions, dosage, and the generalization of skills. However, when discussing empirical support for the interventions, the authors are sometimes unnecessarily vague, providing only a statement that an intervention is recognized as effective rather than any specifics as to how. Unlike most of this Handbook, this chapter is probably of greater use to practitioners than researchers.

In chapter 14, Lohman and Matjasko tackle the issues of adolescent developmental tasks and how parents and schools can work together to increase their chance of success. They cover a variety of interrelated issues including sleep patterns, brain development, alcohol and drug use, various types of relationships, identity development, and gender and ethnic differences. The entire discussion is framed in the context of systems theory. Lohman and Matjasko do an exceptional job of explaining subtle yet meaningful developmental issues and distinctions in very accessible language. For example, "For low-income inner-city boys, school engagement was greater when parental monitoring was high; but for girls, school engagement depended on both high parental monitoring and high family cohesion" (p. 314). Finally, they consistently support their assertions with relevant research.

Section III: Driving the Research Agenda to Inform Policy and Practice

Chapter 15 is particularly relevant to school professionals. Mapp and Hong have a two-fold purpose to both convince readers that the idea of "hard-to-reach parents" (p. 345) is a myth and to promote ideas about how to cultivate relationships with those who have been categorized as such. The most convincing argument they make to debunk that myth is the distinction they draw between viewing families as either assets or deficits. To further illustrate their assertions, the Logan Square Neighborhood Association is effectively used as a case study. Unfortunately, the authors undercut the strength of their argument by the repeated use of universalizing language such as "all families care deeply about their children's education" (p. 347) when "nearly all" is more accurate and still debunks the myth.

In chapter 16, Dunst and Trivette discuss different types of help-giving practices and their relationships to several measures of parent, family, and child functioning, as informed primarily by their own research. One enlightening result of their study was the identification of two clusters (presumably informed through factor analysis) of helping behaviors: relational practices such as affirming, and participating practices such as empowering. Several tables at the end of the chapter nicely supplement the text in the results section.

Smrekar, Cohen-Vogel, and Lee present a typology of school-family relations in chapter 17. The four-model typology is based on how schools attempt to engage parents in the educational process. Overall they provide clear expectations of all four models: Cooptation, Management, Engagement, and Coalition. This is further clarified by useful tables and detailed examples. Two minor issues detract from an otherwise very informative chapter. First, a clearer distinction could be made between the Engagement and Coalition models. Second, Accelerated Schools are described differently in the text and Table 17.2.

Chapter 18 is entitled "Future Directions in Family-School Partnerships," and Carlson aptly identifies important trends as well as topics that have been neglected (e.g., clearly defining "family"). However, this chapter may be even more valuable as a history of cultural ideas leading up to the present and how those ideas shape professional interaction with families. Just a few examples include the shift from modernism to postmodernism, how early social work practice foreshadowed systems and ecological theory, and why it matters that 40% of students but only 17% of teachers are people of color.

In chapter 19, Beretvas, Keith, and Carlson outline for researchers a variety of interrelated research analysis methods and strategies, most utilizing structural equation modeling (SEM). To a reader entirely unfamiliar with SEM this will be difficult reading, although this is simply the nature of the topic and in no way the fault of the authors. The authors stick largely to the conceptual aspects of SEM and their application to analyzing school-family partnerships. They rightly refer readers to other sources for specific programming issues. As someone with a modest familiarity with SEM, I found the explanations to be clear, succinct, and highly instructive. In fact, this chapter could be used as a brief planning guide for using SEM, regardless of specific content.

The final two chapters are each devoted to summarizing broad themes and suggesting emerging trends or visions for the immediate future. Weiss and Stephen, in chapter 20, address broad structural problems that make the formation of strong school-family relationships difficult. For example, the fragmentation of programs nationwide is partially due to how money is allocated at the federal level through multiple small bills that typically are passed in isolation from one another. In spite of solid writing, it is a little challenging to follow all the specific programs and policies they discuss-a fact that actually supports the authors' point. To conclude the chapter the authors discuss how research, practice, and policy could ideally converge.

In the final chapter, Tolan and Woo address the needs of high stress, low income schools; highlight some key generalizations, such as the need to emphasize the quality of parent-teacher interactions over quantity; and give examples of successful programs. Furthermore they address the shifting needs of children as they move through the educational process. Uniting these disparate pieces of information is the overarching goal of shifting the mindset of all involved from deciding whether parents and schools should partner to how they should partner. Ideally they would like to see a future in which families and schools view their respective roles only in the context of each other, as they are naturally viewed through the lens of systems theory and ecological theory.

Conclusion

Christenson and Reschly identified three purposes for this volume: reviewing current theory and research; advancing the momentum of evidence-based interventions; and delineating the next steps for research, policy, and practice. The first and third are certainly achieved in the Handbook. This volume is quite thorough in addressing theory and research in both breadth and depth. Additionally, the third section of the Handbook provides many theoretically rooted and empirically informed recommendations for future research, policy, and practice. The second purpose, advancing momentum, is harder to judge, only because success is defined by how others respond to this volume. However, if the ideas in the Handbook are implemented, school-family partnerships will be more cohesive, more affirming, and-most importantly-more effective in propelling children to greater academic success.

References

Reference

Christenson, S. L., & Reschly, A. L. (2010). Handbook of school-family partnerships. New York, NY: Routledge.