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Introduction
A 'complete' curriculum planning model is not what the field needs. The field needs curriculum planners not only able to use various models but also aware of the implications of their use. (Posner, 1988, p. 94)
Traditional curriculum theory has developed out of an "instrumental rationality." This philosophical perspective separates means from ends to maximize efficiency and effectiveness. Tyler's (1949) rationale is an appropriate example of this approach. Tyler views curriculum theory as technical. Predetermined behavioral objectives serve as a driving force that controls the pedagogical and evaluative efforts that follow. Tyler asserts the development of objectives is necessarily the first "step" in curriculum planning "because they are the most critical criteria for guiding all the other activities of the curriculum maker" (1949, p. 62). This formulation happens before the curriculum maker can "carry on all the further steps of curriculum planning" (p. 62). Tyler's rationale has been challenged, but it seems to have become stronger as a result (Lagemann, 2000; Pinar, 1981). Indeed, its elegant simplicity is engaging.
Tyler's (1949) legendary rationale, a representative of "development" discourse over the last fifty years, has been utilized as a primary way to think about curriculum development and evaluation. However, at present, it tends to take a different form and employs different terminology. Recently, curriculum discourse as "development" tends to be replaced by what is called "backward" curriculum design and assessment (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998). This term has been widely circulated in professional discourse due mainly to its attractive premises and powerful promises. These promises fulfill imperative needs of stakeholders facing standards, assessment, and accountability measures resulting from the No Child Left behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). Consequently, curriculum theory as "backward" has gained a new foothold in school and classroom practices across the country (McTighe & Thomas, 2003).
There is a close relationship between the concept "authentic" in the authentic assessment movement (popularized in the 1990s) and "backward" curriculum discourse. "Authentic" assessment elements are not only extensively included in "backward" curriculum design theory, their role and status are remarkably prioritized and escalated. The concept "authentic," namely a matter of the degree to which an assessment method is closely related to real life contexts, has been widely applauded by many scholars and practitioners. Tyler as...