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INTRODUCTION
dult learners, as Malcolm Knowles asserted in his seminal 1973 publication The Adult Learner, are a "neglected species" whose particular dispositions, needs, and approaches to learning are rarely considered in the design of college-level curricula. Adult learners have distinctive life experiences and are cognitively more advanced than children and adolescents. In many cases, however, college courses employ pedagogical principles in their design. Andragogy, or adult learning, is a field of study that emerged from the innovations of educational psychologists of the 20th century. As the predominant paradigm in psychology shifted from behaviorism to constructivism in the 1970s, educators like Knowles began to translate constructivist insights into a new teaching method. The principles of adult learning emphasize the agency of the learner, collaborative and interactive learning experiences, and the application of curricular content to real-world problems.
Since the advent of online learning, andragogical theorists have developed a number of prescriptions for teaching adults in an online environment. Many of Knowles' original assertions about mature learners in The Adult Learner were tested by later researchers. Newer research on adult learning accounts for individual differences among adults, learning situations, sociocultural diversity among learners, and translating andragogical principles to online course design. There is not, to date, an overarching theory of adult learning. Instead, there is a set of principles that guide adult-centered course design. Adult learning researchers borrow from and contribute to social constructivist learning theories in the development of these principles.
Since the advent of online learning, there has been a vigorous debate on how to foster deep, authentic learning that respects the lived experiences of adults. Many prescriptions for adult learning are still speculative; there is a small but growing body of empirical knowledge to back up the assertions of andragogy. A review of the literature reveals competing theories of course design along a continuum from pure instructivism to radical constructivism. However, adult learning proponents generally largely agree adult learners can be afforded an authentic learning experience through a mix of learner autonomy, interactivity, and a real-world focus.
LITERATURE REVIEW
For most of the 20th century, curriculum design in postsecondary settings was informed by behavioristic psychology. In this model, students are given a stimulus (i.e., a lecture) and then assessed and provided with a...