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Abstract
The "treadmill of destruction," as outlined by Hooks and Smith (2004, 2005, 2012), is a theoretical frame for understanding the environmental impacts and the related adverse consequences of militarism and war-making. One story that has been missed in this larger narrative about militarism and war-making is the use of Agent Orange and other herbicides during the American war in Vietnam and Southeast Asia. This story is told in several parts through the use of secondary sources. First, the origins and nature of Agent Orange and the related herbicides are briefly outlined. Second, the scope, scale, and nature of the military use of herbicides during the war are documented. Third, the adverse environmental, health, and economic consequences of herbicide use are discussed. Fourth, the argument is made that herbicide use during the war resulted from a set of interrelated geopolitical and domestic tensions. Fifth, recent developments in this fifty-year story are briefly discussed. It is concluded that militarism and war-making have contributed to the globalization and unequal distribution of environmental problems in the world-system.
Keywords: Agent Orange, environmental injustice, mili- tary-industrial complex, Operation Ranch Hand, rainbow herbicides, treadmill of destruction, Vietnam War
Introduction
In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military indus- trial complex. (Excerpt from President Dwight Eisenhower's Farewell Address to the Nation, Janu- ary 1, 1961)
The chemical weed killers are a bright new toy. They work in a spectacular way, they give a giddy sense of power over nature to those who wield them, and as for the long range and less obvious effects- these are easily brushed aside as the baseless imag- inings of pessimists. (Carson, 1962)
As the treadmill of destruction goes global, the human and environmental risks are transferred to the world's most vulnerable peoples and places. (Hooks & Smith 2012)
The "treadmill of destruction" (ToD), as developed and ap- plied by Hooks and Smith (2004, 2005, 2012), is a theoreti- cal frame for understanding the environmental damage (whether resource depletion, landscape transformation, or pollution and its adverse consequences for humans and non- human species) caused by militarism and war-making. In other words, the military fosters resource depletion and pol- lution through the heavy use...