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Introduction
Qal'at Sim'ān, the cult site dedicated to Symeon the Stylite the Elder (died 459), is one of the largest building projects completed in late Roman Syria and was a premier pilgrimage destination in Late Antiquity. The site is located approximately thirty-two kilometers northwest of Aleppo and sixty kilometers northeast of Antakya in the Massif Calcaire, that is, the limestone massif that stretched between Antakya, Aleppo, and Qal'at al-Maḍīq (ancient Apameia).1 Symeon resided on multiple columns at the site during his life, but construction of the monumental complex began only after his death. A cruciform church completed by 491/92 and a large baptistery were two of the first monumental structures to be built.2 Over the next half century, the site grew to include a monastic facility with its own church, a third church and a large building (a hostel or monastery) adjoining the baptistery, courts for pilgrims to gather, and additional structures to support pilgrims. Walls demarcated the site's boundaries. A processional route framed by shops and distinguished with a monumental arch led pilgrims to the site from Dayr Sim'ān (ancient Telanissos), the neighboring village.3
Scholars have proposed that an emperor, either Leo I (reigned 457 to 474) or Zeno (reigned 474 to 491), provided funding for the project.4 The size of the complex, the speed and scale at which construction took place, and architectural details all suggest imperial patronage, but no textual sources corroborate this assertion. This is striking because letters, hagiographies, an ecclesiastical history, and a chronicle testify to Theodosius II's (reigned 408 to 450) and Leo's interest in the saint.5 In addition, the archaeological record preserves inscriptions from Qal'at Sim'ān and Dayr Sim'ān that name individuals involved in construction. Nevertheless, these sources are uniformly silent on the issue of imperial patronage.
Given the importance of Qal'at Sim'ān for the history of Symeon's cult, architecture in Syria, and late antique pilgrimage, financial support for the project is a topic worthy of careful study. In my view, the monumental character of the complex has led scholars to seek out evidence for imperial sponsorship and, simultaneously, overlook evidence for local investment. This article provides a comprehensive examination of the evidence for patronage at Qal'at Sim'ān in order to shift...