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Introduction
Research has demonstrated that Holocaust survivors report increased post-traumatic symptoms (PTS) relative to comparisons (e.g., Barel et al., 2010; see also Lapp et al., 2011). Moreover, such individuals are at risk for increased depression and anxiety (Carmel et al., 2017; Greenblatt-Kimron and Cohen, 2020). Interestingly, Holocaust survivors often demonstrate enhanced adjustment in several life aspects, which led Shmotkin (2003) to suggest that together with specific vulnerabilities to certain life events, survivors display a general resilience, which assists them in maintaining a productive and meaningful life. This theoretical assumption was corroborated by research, as a meta-analysis found that while survivors do indeed report increased PTS and psychological distress, they displayed resilience in other life domains (Barel et al., 2010; see also Ohana et al., 2014). In this regard, Barel et al. (2010) report that across 71 samples, Holocaust survivors, despite the abovementioned studies, did not differ from nonsurvivors as far as physical health, cognitive functioning, and stress-related physiology are concerned. However, recent large-scale epidemiological studies report higher levels of medical and cognitive morbidity among survivors on the one hand and higher life expectancy on the other hand (see Shrira, 2020). According to Barel et al. (2010), survivors’ motivation to rebuild their lives and to invest in their families and in social activities play an important role in imbuing meaning to their lives, thereby promoting resilience (see also Shmotkin, 2003).
It seems that one aspect of the specific vulnerability among Holocaust survivors relates to the psychological effects of external negative events, which may be perceived as threatening to one’s current and/or future life. For example, following the 9/11 attacks, survivors demonstrated increased PTS relative to comparisons, but no significant group differences were found with regard to resilience (Lamet et al., 2008). Similar results were found in an earlier research examining the effects of the 1991 Gulf war (Solomon and Prager, 1992). This pattern also seems to be portrayed when medical concerns are examined, as Holocaust survivors diagnosed with cancer demonstrated elevated PTS relative to comparison patients (Hantman and Solomon, 2007).
It is suggested that Holocaust survivors may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of COVID-19 (Cohn-Schwartz et al., 2020). According to the Conservation of Resources Theory (Gerhart et al.