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Abstract
Control of veterinary and human parasitic nematodes relies heavily on chemotherapy with anthelmintics but drug resistance is a growing problem. Against the widely used macrocyclic lactones (MLs), drug resistance has emerged in several nematode species and this is a particular challenge in parasites of ruminants and horses. For instance, ML resistance is globally widespread in an important pathogen of foals, Parascaris univalens. In order to find a sustainable solution for this problematic trend, several strategies have been proposed with the aim of maintaining susceptibility or reversing resistance. These strategies focus on optimized treatment and hygiene regimens guided and complemented by reliable resistance diagnosis and improved farm management. For their implementation, a good knowledge of the underlying resistance mechanisms is considered imperative. However, the underlying mechanisms of ML resistance are mostly unknown. In the last decade, considerable efforts have helped to functionally validate several candidate genes and to better understand some aspects of the genetic basis of ML resistance at the genomic and transcriptomic level. Although uncertainty remains, the ATP-binding-cassette (ABC)-transporters and particularly members of the ABCB subfamily, the P-glycoproteins (Pgps), have been proposed as contributors to ML resistance in several nematode species. The Pgp gene family in nematodes contains several different orthologous lineages but which Pgp genes play a role in ML resistance and how, is unknown.
In a first step, the complete Pgp repertoire in the horse roundworm P. univalens was characterized by transcriptome-guided RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing. This allowed a considerable improvement of the annotation of a total of ten identified Pgp genes including an ascarid specific lineage and two gene duplications with subsequent divergence. Overall, this is a similarly sized repertoire compared to other nematodes, but the phylogenetic analysis revealed that the repertoire of Pgp lineages varies considerably between species. Using a diverse set of transcriptome resources, the tissue expression patterns of all P. univalens Pgp genes were characterized in P. univalens and in the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. In both species, expression of Pgps was predominant in the intestine, moderate in the epidermis or carcass tissue (in P. univalens, containing the epidermis, neurons, muscles and the pharynx) and low in the gonads. No indicibility of individual P. univalens Pgp expression was found by examining a novel transcriptome generated from adult P. univalens incubated with ivermectin (IVM, a commonly used ML and an avermectin) or a control. Taken together, the two examined independent P. univalens transcriptome data sets showed that PunPgp-9 and PunPgp-11.1 were the most strongly expressed genes followed by PunPgp-16.1 and -2. These analyses provide a basis for future studies with a focus on selected candidate Pgps.
To investigate the function of Pgps in nematodes and to examine which anthelmintics fall into the substrate range of Pgps, heterologous expression of P. univalens Pgps in different model organisms was employed. Two selected and phylogenetically distant P. univalens Pgps, PunPgp-9 and PunPgp-2, were examined for their ability to transport IVM, an ML, or thiabendazole, a benzimidazole, which is both an antimycotic and anthelmintic, by heterologous expression in an ABC-transporter deletion Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain. The results of this previously established assay, indicated that IVM, but not thiabendazole, is a conserved substrate of both examined Pgps.





