"Zero defects" and "Zero nonconformities"

Abstract

The objective of our study was the comparative analysis of two concepts underlying the attention of organizations, specialists and managers, concepts that are defined and are found in all standards and continuous quality improvement projects: defects and nonconformities. There are pros and cons presented the concept of "zero defects" quality costs with the costs of defects / nonconformities, learning concepts "zero defects" and "total quality" to lead them to make better managers out value system organization available.

Headnote

Abstract:

The objective of our study was the comparative analysis of two concepts underlying the attention of organizations, specialists and managers, concepts that are defined and are found in all standards and continuous quality improvement projects: defects and nonconformities. There are pros and cons presented the concept of "zero defects" quality costs with the costs of defects / nonconformities, learning concepts "zero defects" and "total quality" to lead them to make better managers out value system organization available.

Keywords: defect, non-compliance, zero defects, total quality management, quality management

Introduction

We will focus here in after at two essential concepts concerning quality, quality costs, and customer satisfaction concepts are issues concerned with quality management specialists and continuous quality improvement: non-conformities and defaults.

A comparative analysis of these concepts is not just semantic meanings. Orientation approach or another means significant changes in treating optical quality and various practical ways that ensure customer satisfaction and other stakeholders. What are these guidelines that are specific ways of corrective and preventive actions are some problems that we try to formulate answers in this study.

Crosby is the first to introduce the concept of "zero defaults" concept that seems ideal for many of us because we accept that the defects (nonconformities, errors) are inevitable. Skip to the new paradigm "zero defects" should be seen as a necessity of changing the principles of individual acceptance of damage as unavoidable real desire to do well the first time, every time. "This conceptual jump represents an important step in the interpretation and understanding of the Total Quality Management (TQM) concept" [1, 7]. A paradigm is defined as a conceptual framework, a way of seeing the world, a set of classes in which the facts are stacked. The essence of the definition seems to be the idea of "stacking" of the facts and activities on the basis of a new set of criteria when the same facts will gain a new meaning on which we view the world will get a different picture. This implies a different structure, so other concepts with which to plan, operate and control the activities of the organization.

Another leap paradigm represents the transition from quality control oriented to prevent defects and continuous process improvement by providing adaptation strategy of the organization to external conditions. The leap from an old paradigm to one nine is a necessity to increase competitiveness under domestic and foreign markets due to globalization of the world economy. In these circumstances, to speak of a new dimension of quality based on a leap to a new management approach in which special attention is given to customer value, coordinate all functions of the organization to achieve its objectives as efficiently as possible and engaging the entire organization in a process of continuous improvement. This jump requires a radical change in organizational culture.

The need of paradigm leap in quality management has been the subject of numerous debates and works in which the jump is related to three important elements of TQM concept: customer focus, continuous improvement process and quality system approach.

All specialists, quality experts, managers agree with the need to avoid / eliminate nonconformities, which is the main objective of quality management.

1. Non-quality

It is important that the development quality management, which is designed to help the organization to continuously improve quality and to accredit the existence of the organization's ability to keep under control the quality of products / services or the Quality Management System (QMS) to quantify losses of poor quality to reduce them so that the problem of quality costs are kept under control.

Non-quality (or "poor quality", "non-compliance") is the difference between the desired quality and overall quality actually obtained. This difference can be measured more or less complete in economic terms.

Satisfaction expressed and implied meaning is underlined by the beneficiaries of the terms "noncompliance" and "defect". The ISO, non-compliance means failure to satisfy the requirements specified, and defect is not satisfying the requirements for the intended use. The first term refers to the observance of the provisions of the contract documents and the second use of the product. The distinction must be made because in some cases you can not use the products (services) malfunction. In other cases where certain requirements are not strictly necessary but it is possible to use products to original specifications with some nonconformities. In such circumstances specifications are subject to change.

Differentiation of non-compliance and the definition of default is dimmed but on a different level of quality. The conception that defines non-Taguchi quality as "loss caused from the delivery company (rather manufacture) service or product." Because of this more accurate and real is that this loss includes the realization that cycle (design and implementation).

The notion of default as opposed to that of "fitness for use" is closer to the optical purchaser. European Community Directive on liability of the supplier is enlightening in this respect. It gives the impression that a product (service) can acquire other uses in relation to the stipulated according to its presentation. In this view, the defect is the fact that the product (service) ensures that you can not rightly be expected from its use by customers.

Non-quality is subdivided into categories:

* non-compliance - failure to satisfy specifications;

* defects - failure to satisfy a condition of use;

* failure - stopping ability of a product to perform its required functions; due to execution failures may occur (manufacture) due to inadequate or improper use.

Definition of default as failure to satisfy conditions of use, defines the quality in relation to the ability to be used, unlike the notion of non-compliance does not affect use. Considerations for defects and nonconformities apply, accepting the latter being possible by negotiation. Classification of defects (including non-compliance) was made generally in relation to the classification criteria of quality characteristics:

* nature - functional and structural defects, appearance, packaging;

* measurement possibilities - measurable defects / attribute);

* importance - critical, major, minor,

* according to the effect - allowing reshuffle, which result reboot;

* after the time of occurrence relative to the duration of the product: youth, maturity, old age.

* character appearance: accidental; systematic

* by cause, origin, the most important criterion for removing their appearance. Depending on the cause, defects fall into one of the 6 M, i.e. material, labourer, machine, working method (technology) measurement environment.

The critical defect is the defect which can have serious consequences on consumers [2, 58].

The non-compliance relates to: products, services, Quality Management System. Welch (2005), cited by Sirbu [3, 184] regarded as typical examples of non-compliance:

* the organization's policy and procedures are defined and documented to allow their use as a basis for system implementation audit,

* procedures requirements are implemented in a significant measure,

* a specific requirement standard / activity was not applied (absence of a document control system, lack of staff competence in performing tasks etc.),

* use of outdated procedures,

* procedures are not available in the places where they are needed,

* records are incomplete on quality, so it can not be demonstrated proper system operation, etc.

Any non-compliance (the "failure of requirements" standard) is considered and called "quality problem" problem described by Drägulänescu (Figure no. 1) by:

* gap / difference between "what is" and "what should be" (the actual non-compliance / manifested detected / identified, so at the present time)

* Gap / difference between "what could be" and "what should be" (the non-compliance still unmanifested, but potential, so the next time)

A first difference and understand to establish and implement a solution so that these discrepancies are not repeated, in fact, the corrective action settlement - (as "action to eliminate the cause of nonconformities detected or other undesirable situation" according to SR EN ISO 9000: 2006).

To analyse and understand the second difference it is necessary to establish and implement a solution so that this difference does not arise actually means, through preventive action settlement (the "action to eliminate the cause of nonconformities or other potentially possible undesirable situation" according to SR EN ISO 9000: 2006).

Note that in the business of industrial developed countries, "compliance" (i.e. quality) is associated with "gain" and "non-compliance" (i.e. non-quality) with "loss". In order to maximize gains, it interests only "quality brought and kept under control" (located at the intersection of three circles) (Figure no. 2) [5, 27-28] and maximizing it - through continuous improvement that reduces (up to elimination) "nonquality" (by solving problems), "over quality" and "random quality".

Maintaining quality control refers to continuous improvement and optimization. "Optimization and continuous improvement but do not exclude assume different philosophies and practices. The essential difference is that the optimization takes into account the particular organization while continuously improving all stakeholders, including the organization." [6, 109]

Nonconformities control is to identify, analyze, evaluate and treat nonconformities Therefore, on the one hand, notification functions involved, and on the other hand, providing useful information for determining corrective action and / or preventive ones.

For most product deficiencies, Masui unit is expressed by a simple generic formula proposed by Juran [7,98]:

Quality = Frequency of deficiencies / opportunity to produce

where the frequencyof deficiencies can mean number of defects, number of errors, recovery time of an operation, the cost of poor quality, the number of failures during operation; opportunity to produce can mean number of units of product produced, total hours worked, revenue sales and number of units of product in progress. The result is expressed as: percentage of fault, error rate, percentage of reexecution rate units in operation failures.

A significant number of nonconformities, compared with the size and complexity of the organization, registered in different areas, can be considered as forming a whole of SMC and default risk for the organization.

About costs "poor quality" Juran said that "there are huge" [8, 145]. He exemplifies the loss of the 80s when the US about a third of the amount of work meant restoring previous work, because of imperfections products and projects. "To measure the cost of poor quality, many evaluations may be obtained from the measurements product and process deficiencies, or by using natural units or by using equivalent amounts." [8, 145]

In conclusion, a defect is non-compliance but non-compliance is not always a defect.

2. Preventive Actions. Corrective Actions

In a previous paper [9, 54-57] we have proposed a continuous improvement strategy entitled "Strategy TPV" which refers to the last (self), present (corrective action), future (preventive action).

According to ISO 9000: 2005, "Corrective action is the action taken to eliminate the causes of nonconformities detected or other undesirable situation. For non-compliance there may be several causes. Corrective action is taken to prevent recurrence, while preventive action is taken to prevent occurrence". [3, 191]

Also in ISO 9000, preventive actions are defined as "action to eliminate the cause of nonconformities, potential or other undesirable situation. For a potential nonconformity there may be several causes".

ISO 9001: 2008 provides that an organization must consider the evidence nonconformities, their origin and their possible effects so that corrective actions to limit the consequences and to prevent a recurrence of the real causes.

Philip B. Crosby, one of the titans of quality as a science was adept of quality assurance through prevention, considering that an inspection system (no matter how rigorous) not only to detect noncompliance, i.e. only detects non-quality [10, 89]. To achieve quality, it is necessary first of all to prevent defects of any kind, claiming that prevention costs much lower than those of "treatment" (reshuffle, replacements, etc.). Crosby addresses the quality in terms of top management [11, 30]. In 1979, Crosby penned Quality Is Free: The Art of Making Quality Certain which preserved the idea of Zero Defects in the 14-step Quality Improvement Program and in the concept of the "Absolutes of Quality Management" The four values that can summarize his view Crosby's "Absolutes of Quality Management" are [12, 172]:

* Quality is conformance to requirements. The customer is the one who defines the requirements and specifications will be developed afterwards. There is no room for mistakes.

* Defect prevention is preferable to quality inspection and correction. Quality must be included in design processes and work not only a summary of the final result. Leading to the quality system is based on prevention of non-conformities, corrective action on release and not on their evaluation";

* Zero Defects is the quality standard, quality performance is the lack of defects. Products and services must comply with all the requirements. Standard across the organization must be "Zero defects" and not "sufficiently close to zero defects". The organization should not accept any compromises in terms of quality;

* Quality is measured in monetary terms - the Price of Non-conformance (Ponce). The cost of quality is given by conformity price plus the non-compliance. Eliminate errors by improving the quality reduces total cost of production. The extent and quality of non-compliance is not an index price.

3. Objective ''Zero Defects"

In the last half century, particularly dynamic and complex evolution of the world has been accompanied by an explosion in the concepts, principles, terminology, and information technologies in all sciences. Science and quality management are undoubtedly two areas that have seen spectacular developments in the meantime. "This rapid evolution, we come often hard to keep up, sometimes perplexing about the meanings and dimensions of the new terms and concepts even to the specialists in neighbouring fields" [13, 11].

In the late 50s, given that some, not insignificant, of finished products were due to design flaws and design, adopted a new concept based on preventive practices to achieve the goal of "zero defects" [11, 10]. Zero Defects (or ZD) was a management led program to removed defects in industrial production enjoyed that brief popularity in American industry from 1964 to the early 1970s. Zero Defects - A New Dimension in Quality Assurance is a management tool aimed at the reduction of defects through prevention. It is directed at motivating people to prevent mistakes by developing a constant, conscious desire to do their job right in the first time.

The concept of "zero defects" has emerged as one of the most controversial approaches to quality. "Imposing "Zero defects" may be error managerial employees, for most failures come from the management system and not the employees" claims Canard [14, 194] in accordance with paragraph 10 of their famous 14 points Deming's. Crosby's answer was: "Zero defects" does not mean that people do not make mistakes: the company does not expect them to make mistakes.

Actually strategy "Zero defects" always imposed in certain areas such as health, arms industry, aviation, transport etc.

4. "Zero Defects" (ZD) Movement

Crosby is the author of the concept of "zero defects" that "everything we do must be well done, for the first time and every time." According to this concept (of which later appeared similar concepts zero delay, zero stock, zero paper, zero accidents and zero even contempt) is wrong to believe that nonquality would be inevitable. For the purpose of, any defect can be avoided since it is determined either inadvertently or by a lack of knowledge and practical skills in both situations solving the problem through training and adopting new attitudes and behaviours by each employee. Going on this line, Crosby became a bitter enemy of inspection procedures based on the concept AQL (acceptable quality level), asking him not tolerate percent nonconforming (however small they may be), but operate with Zero Defects (ZD ). He even launched a campaign (in the 60s) as the ZD Movement (Movement Zero Defects) [15, 44].

Test "Zero Defects" (ZD) proposed by Crosby [16, 40-42] is designed to help correct understanding of the concept of "Zero Defects". Any wrong answer indicates that Crosby's opinion, it is necessary to improve (Table no. 1).

Crosby gives more importance than the technical aspects of quality assurance, emphasizing the need to create "a culture of quality" in any organization, involving the top management [14, 194]. For Crosby quality or not there supporting the idea of "poor quality cost" or "cost of non-compliance" which he introduced in the following formula:

Cost of Quality = price paid for compliance with + the price paid for non-compliance with these

For the purpose of Crosby, quality is the principle governing the prevention of nonconformities, the following concepts described in [17]:

* A run everything right the first time and every time;

* Zero defects and zero-day flaws;

* Respect s four absolutes of quality management:

* The prevention;

* The vaccine quality. "Viruses nonconformities" must prevent a "vaccine" consisting of three distinct stages: determination / finding, awareness / education, prevention / implementation. Continuous administration of the vaccine responsibility lies entirely with the top management of the organization.

* The 6C, with reference to education: understanding, commitment, competence, communication, correcting, continuity.

At first, ZD Movement has intrigued quality science and industrial enterprises, but was later heavily criticized. In 1975, during a roundtable held in Tokyo on "quality control activities in foreign countries and seeing the Japanese" Kaoru Ishikawa was already talk of "ZD motion collapse" [10, 90]:

* ZD is nothing but a propaganda campaign, in contrast to quality circles in Japan focusing on ownership by workers of basic quantitative methods of quality analysis;

* ZD is a revival of Taylorism, putting extra workers dumped on the responsibility of management processes;

* Promoters ZD did not understand (as said Juran) that defects are mainly caused by poor management, operators can be held responsible only for a small percentage of noncompliance.

However, as the technology has advanced, the occurrence of nonconformities and failure phenomena have strengthened the randomness and space industry tragic examples provided in this respect, although there was repeated inspection processes were automated control and durability and reliability tests were repeated until it achieves the desired functional performance.

A different conception of "Zero defects" by Crosby is the "Poka Yoke" (error proof) Shigeo Shingo's whose basic idea is to stop the process when an error occurs, determine the cause and prevention of recurrence [11, 314]. Poka Yoke Japanese concept was taken over by Masaaki Imai in philosophy "Kaizen" [18, 25], meaning "be harder to do than a defective product quality", which means that measures that to ensure this, so careful quality mastering.

And Taguchi combat goal of "zero defects" as it claims that there is an always uncontrollable random factor that may cause problems - be they and minor. Two of the seven principles to improve the quality of Taguchi's concerns [13, 34]:

* Improved quality is achieved by reducing deviations essential characteristics real to their nominal values prescribed by standards;

* Damage caused to society are generally proportional to the square deviation of the performance characteristic to its nominal value.

Zero nonconformities. Method "Zero nonconformities" is sometimes included between continuous quality improvement methods, taking into account that most times, "the removal of all faults is an ideal toward which an organization that is approaching step by step but you will not achieve full and permanent "[19, 238]. By implementing the Quality Management System creates the conditions for achieving major objectives defined in the literature as "zero nonconformities" zero defects, zero inventory, zero waste, zero useless papers, zero system crash, zero delays, zero contempt.

Conclusions

Given some obstacles / limitations of applying ISO 9000 family of standards and strategy "zero defects" / "zero nonconformity" in service organizations or small organizations, strategic vision for quality management involves a change of attitudes, values of beliefs. [20, 51]

With the acceptance of change and the concept of style as all the modem organization automatically changes the value system, i.e. change the principles that really shows how involved everyone in the organization and the importance of their contribution [11, 50]. From here we can see that each EMPLOYEE must realize that its role, issues arising from the concept of total quality and is translated to all players as being "zero defects" / "zero nonconformities".

Total quality attaches importance big enough confidence in employees, those who will work very well and perform their duties and promises. Total quality is based on a simple mle and tidy worth, namely "Do not do evil knowingly." The enthusiasm that was created by this new concept "total quality" or "zero defects" / "zero nonconformities" will force managers to adopt increasingly more visible to highlight the value system available to each organization .

References

References

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Supplementary recommended readings

SR EN ISO/CEI 17000:2005 - Evaluarea conformitätii. Vocabular çi principii generale

SR EN ISO / CEI 17021:2011 - Evaluarea conformitätii. Cerinte pentru organisme care efectueazä audit si certificare de sisteme de management

ISO/TS 22003:2007 - Food safety management systems - Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of food safety management systems

ISO 9000:2005 - Quality management systems - Fundamentals and vocabulary

ISO 9001:2008 - Quality management systems - Requirements

EMAS-Regulamentul Parlamentului European çi al Consiliului (CE) no. 1221/2009

OHS AS 18001:2007 - Occupational health and safety management systems - requirements