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ABSTRACT
The phenomenon of victims developing emotional attachments to their abusers or captors has been observed within situations involving intimate partner violence, child abuse, hostage situations, human trafficking, and cults. This psychological phenomenon labeled Stockholm syndrome or trauma bonding has been explained as a product of interpersonal trauma. Despite repeated observations of trauma bonding in victims of interpersonal violence, little research exists regarding its formation or persistence and even less is known about positive resolution in survivors. This review begins by presenting the existing theoretical conceptualizations and research findings on trauma bonding along with complexities of intervention and treatment. Next, critical concerns regarding methodological weaknesses of previous research focused on trauma bonding are addressed and several potential avenues for integrated theory and research are recommended. Lastly, implications for policy related to trauma bonding within the field of interpersonal violence are explored.
INTRODUCTION
Paradoxical and powerful attachments between captives and their captors have been observed as perplexing complications subsequent to traumatic and terrifying experiences. Initially documented in captive situations, such as hostage crises and kidnappings, the phenomenon of trauma bonding has also been detected and detailed in a broad array of exploitive relationships. Trauma bonding is not universally exhibited in every exploitive relationship; however, in the presence of a particularly potent set of factors common to exploitive relationships, the formation of traumatic bonding has been observed in men, women, children, and animals (Cantor and Price, 2007; de Fabrique, Van Hasselt, Vecchi, and Romano, 2007; Graham, Rawlings, and Rigsby, 1994). The conditions conducive to trauma bonding are: 1) perceived threat to one's physical and psychological survival at the hands of an abuser, 2) perceived kindness from the abuser to the victim, 3) isolation, and 4) inability to escape.
Terms and Definitions
The most propagated term associated with trauma bonding is Stockholm syndrome (de Fabrique et al., 2007). This term dates back to an attempted bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden in 1973 that developed into a hostage situation that lasted for six days (Bejerot, 1974). During their time in captivity, the hostages developed a positive attachment to the robbers. After the ordeal ended, hostages posted bail for the robbers and expressed wishes to marry them (Dutton and Painter, 1981). Based on this event, the paradoxical phenomenon...