The Lotus Sutra, Persecution, and Religious Identity in the Early Nichiren Tradition

Abstract

In 1279, twenty peasants who were lay followers of the Buddhist teacher Nichiren were summarily arrested at Atsuhara in the Fuji district of Suruga province and were sent for trial to Kamakura, where three of them were beheaded. This incident is known in the history of Nichiren Buddhism as the Atsuhara persecution. The first part of this article outlines the circumstances of the persecution and the political and religious tensions that fueled it and considers how Nichiren was able to persuade his followers to remain steadfast in the face of a grave threat. The second part examines links between Nichiren's interpretation of the persecution and larger themes in his teaching of exclusive devotion to the Lotus Sutra, especially that offering one's life for the sutra's sake guarantees one's attainment of buddhahood. Lastly, the article touches on how later accounts of the Atsuhara persecution shaped a normative ideal within the Nichiren tradition of how Lotus devotees should meet opposition from those in power.

Headnote

In 1279, twenty peasants who were lay followers of the Buddhist teacher Nichiren were summarily arrested at Atsuhara in the Fuji district of Suruga province and were sent for trial to Kamakura, where three of them were beheaded. This incident is known in the history of Nichiren Buddhism as the Atsuhara persecution. The first part of this article outlines the circumstances of the persecution and the political and religious tensions that fueled it and considers how Nichiren was able to persuade his followers to remain steadfast in the face of a grave threat. The second part examines links between Nichiren's interpretation of the persecution and larger themes in his teaching of exclusive devotion to the Lotus Sutra, especially that offering one's life for the sutra's sake guarantees one's attainment of buddhahood. Lastly, the article touches on how later accounts of the Atsuhara persecution shaped a normative ideal within the Nichiren tradition of how Lotus devotees should meet opposition from those in power.

keywords: Lotus Sutra-Atsuhara-Nichiren-Nikko-persecution-martyrdom

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So precious are its teachings, the Lotus Sutra suggests, that one should uphold them even at the cost of one's life. In the "Fortitude" chapter, a host of bodhisattvas declares in the Buddha's presence, "We do not cher- ish bodily life. We value only the unsurpassed Way" (t 9.36c). They enumer- ate the trials they will endure in order to uphold and spread the Lotus in the evil age following the Buddha's nirvana: slander and abuse; attack by swords and staves; enmity from kings, ministers, and respected monks; and repeated ban- ishment. Similarly, the "The Life Span of the Tathagata" chapter says that the primordially awakened Sakyamuni will appear to those who, "single-mindedly desiring to see the Buddha, do not begrudge bodily life" (t 9.43b). In the long history of Lotus Sutra interpretation, the figure who took closest note of these passages was undoubtedly the medieval Japanese Buddhist teacher Nichiren ... (1222-1282). Originally a monk of the Tendai School, Nichiren revered the Lotus as Sakyamuni Buddha's highest teaching and maintained that, now in the Final Dharma age (mappo ...), only the Lotus Sutra leads to Buddhahood; other teachings must be set aside as provisional. Various disasters confronting his con- temporaries, such as famine and epidemics within the realm and the threat of Mongol invasion from without, represented in his eyes the direct result of people abandoning the Lotus Sutra and relying instead on teachings that were inferior and incomplete. Over the course of his career, Nichiren's claims for the exclusive efficacy of the Lotus and his criticism of other Buddhist forms provoked opposi- tion from Buddhist leaders and government officials; he was twice arrested and exiled, and attempts were made on his life. Thus he claimed to have read the Lotus Sutra not only with his mouth and mind but also with his body (shikidoku ...), living out in his own person the sutra's predictions about the hostility that will confront its devotees in an evil latter age (Habito 2009). From this perspec- tive, the opposition that he encountered could be seen as both validating the sutra's words and also legitimizing his own actions as its devotee. Out of his own experience of persecution, Nichiren forged an unwavering faith in the salvific value of undergoing great trials for the Lotus Sutra's sake. By enduring such dif- ficulties, he maintained, one could expiate one's past karmic offenses and fulfill the compassionate practice of a bodhisattva; by giving up one's life, if required, for the Lotus Sutra, one would be certain to become a Buddha in one's next exis- tence (Stone 2002 and 2007). Nichiren's faith in the soteriological significance of meeting persecution in upholding the Lotus not only helped sustain his fol- lowing during his lifetime but would deeply influence his subsequent tradition. The Hokkeshu or "Lotus sect," as Nichiren's followers were called in medieval times, has in fact a history of individuals known as "martyrs" (junkyosha ...), who willingly incurred the anger of the authorities in order to reassert Nichiren's exclusive claims for the Lotus Sutra.1

Nichiren's ideas about the religious meaning of enduring great trials were shaped not only by his own hardships but also by the need to encourage his followers, who also met with antagonism on account of their faith-whether as individuals, from their relatives and feudal lords, or as members of his follow- ing as a whole. On two occasions during Nichiren's lifetime, groups within his broader community were targeted by government officials. The first instance occurred in the wake of Nichiren's arrest and exile to Sado Island in 1271, when, by his own account, officials of the bakufu, the shogunate or military govern- ment, drew up a list of some two hundred sixty of his followers living in Kama- kura where the bakufu had its base, intending to banish them (Shuju onfurumai gosho ..., Teihon 2: 970). Of that time, he wrote, "My disciples have been banished or imprisoned, while their lay supporters have had their lands confiscated or were expelled from their clans" (Nyosetsu shugyo sho ..., Teihon 1: 736). Out of a thousand followers in Kamakura, he later said, nine hundred ninety-nine had abandoned their faith ("Nii-ama gozen gohenji" ..., Teihon 1: 869; Takagi 1965, 181-85). The second instance was the so-called Atsuhara persecution (Atsuhara honan ...), a series of violent acts and questionable legal proceedings that targeted not Nichiren himself but his followers, both monks and laity, in Atsuhara village in the Fuji district of Suruga province (present-day Shizuoka Prefecture) during the late 1270s and that threatened to engulf his entire following. In the end, twenty lay devotees were arrested and three executed. This second government action against a group of Nichiren's followers formed the occasion for Nichiren to rearticulate, late in his life, his teachings on the importance of readiness to give up one's life, if need be, for the Lotus Sutra. It also suggests that, by that point in the formation of his community, this ultimate commitment to the Lotus was shared, not only by Nichiren himself and his educated monk-disciples versed in the sutra and its commentaries, but by unlettered peasants.

Virtually all that we know about the Atsuhara affair comes from the writings of two people: Nichiren himself and to a lesser extent one of his leading disciples, the monk Hoki-bo ..., also known as Nikko ... (1246-1333), who headed Nichiren's followers in Suruga. Any relevant bakufu records have been lost, pos- sibly destroyed with the fall of the Kamakura shogunate in 1333. Those arrested and executed were quite probably illiterate; in any case, they left no records. Thus by default it is the writings of Nichiren and Nikko that tell the story, and one cannot assess the facts of the case independently of their account.2 None- theless, their references to the persecution offer considerable insight into the organization of Nichiren's following, his powers of leadership, and his message of absolute dedication to the Lotus Sutra. This article will focus on Nichiren's interpretation of the Atsuhara affair and the rhetorical strategies by which he was able to invest hostility from those in power with religious meaning and thus hold his community together in the face of serious threat. The first part will out- line the circumstances and chronology of the persecution as well as Nichiren's response. The second part will analyze how Nichiren and Nikko's reading of the Atsuhara affair was linked to broader themes in Nichiren's teaching about meet- ing persecution for the Lotus Sutra's sake as an unparalleled salvific opportunity and also touch on how accounts of the Atsuhara persecution contributed to a normative ideal of faith and practice for the later Nichiren tradition.

Background of the Persecution

The trouble at Atsuhara came to a head in the context of several interrelated social, institutional, and political tensions. What began as a local conflict soon involved the larger apparatus of bakufu authority and was aggravated by the mounting threat of a Mongol attack on Japan. A brief summary of these contrib- uting factors will first be in order.

In 1279, when the persecution broke out, Nichiren had been living for about five years in his retreat at Mt. Minobu in Kai province (present-day Yamanashi Prefecture), which bordered on Suruga. In 1274 he had been pardoned from his second sentence of exile, to Sado Island. On his return, failing again to convince bakufu officials of his claim that only faith in the Lotus Sutra could protect the country against invasion by the Mongols, he soon left Kamakura and settled at Minobu, where he devoted himself to writing and training disciples. From that time on, his leading monk-disciples-Nissho ... (1221-1323), Nichiro ... (1245-1320), Niko ... (1253-1314), Nitcho ... (1252-1317), and others- assumed direct charge of proselytizing and guiding local communities of follow- ers in the eastern or Kanto provinces. Heading Nichiren's followers in Suruga was Nikko, known at the time as Hoki-bo and later as Byakuren Ajari ... . Nikko's chief lay supporter in the area was one Nanjo Tokimitsu ... (d. 1332), son of Nanjo Hyoe Shichiro ... (d. 1265), a warrior thought to have met Nichiren and become his follower during a tour of duty in Kama- kura. Tokimitsu was the bakufu-appointed steward (jito ...) of Ueno in the upper Fuji district; thus he is also known as "Ueno-dono" ... . The joint efforts of Nikko and Tokimitsu won a growing number of converts in the Fuji area. The elite among them were members of the local landholding bushi or war- rior families, many of them related to either Nikko or Tokimitsu. Nikko's mother was from the Yui ... or Nishiyama ... branch of the Kawai ... family, and through her, he was also related to its Takahashi ... branch, while Tokimitsu was linked through his sisters' marriages to the Ishikawa ... and Niida ... families, all of whom counted Lotus devotees among their members. In Suruga as elsewhere, ties of blood and marriage formed the basis for the spread of Nichiren's teachings among provincial warrior clans (Takagi 1965, 197-99; s.v. "Nanjo" in Ibun jiten, 834-36).

Nikko also converted a number of resident monks at Tendai temples in the Fuji area who may have been related to these warrior families or to the peasants who worked their lands.3 Like Nichiren, Nikko had begun his religious career as a Tendai cleric. He himself was a monk responsible for officiating at routine rit- ual or liturgical services (kuso ...) at the temple Shijukuin ... at Kanbara in Fuji, where he had first taken the tonsure as a boy. He also had ties to another local temple, Jissoji ... in Iwamoto. At Shijukuin, Nikko gained as followers of Nichiren's teaching the monks Nichiji ..., Kenshu ..., and Shoken ..., and at Jissoji, the monks Higo-ko ..., Chikuzen-bo ..., Buzen-bo ... (or Buzen-ko ...), and Nitchu .... And at Ryusenji ... in Atsuhara, which would become the epicenter of the persecution, he converted Shimotsuke-bo Nisshu ... (d. 1329), Echigo-bo Nichiben ... (1239-1311), Sho-bo Nichizen ... (d. 1331), and others. While Nichiren was critical of the Tendai Buddhism of his day, the presence of so many of his followers among the monks of Tendai temples in Suruga indicates that, during his lifetime, the fact of becoming Nichiren's disciple did not in and of itself entail a rejection of Tendai sectarian identity.

Like Nikko, several of his converts among local monks were kuso, a mid- ranking position within the temple hierarchy that brought them into close contact with the peasantry. Some kuso had small private landholdings donated to them in exchange for performing ritual services, and their interests were thus closely allied to those of the farmers who worked these lands (Takagi 1965, 195, 201; Hori Nichiko 1974, 1: 136-37). To these peasants they began to preach Nichiren's teaching of exclusive devotion to the Lotus Sutra. The heart of Nichiren's message-that salvation is possible simply through chanting the title or daimoku of the Lotus Sutra in the formula Namu-myoho-renge-kyo ... ...-was readily accessible to unlettered people. Nichiren's more famous dis- ciples, known to posterity through his letters, tended to be of the warrior class. But Nichiren also had followers among a lower social group, some of whom did not receive letters for the simple reason that they could not read; nonetheless they are known from inscriptions on calligraphic mandala honzon that Nichiren made for them as personal objects of worship (Takagi 1965, 68, 78, note 5). Nikko's 1298 Honzon bun'yo cho ... (Record of distribution of the object of worship), a record of those among his followers, monks and lay people, who had received mandalas inscribed by Nichiren, mentions several devotees from the Atsuhara area (nsz 2: 112-18). These three, often interrelated groups-local warrior families, monks, and farmers-comprised Nichiren's following in the Fuji district. Of the three, it was last group, the peasant farmers, who would bear the most serious consequences of the persecution.

In the latter 1270s, the bakufu was mobilizing defenses in the southern island of Kyushu in preparation for a second Mongol invasion and also commissioning temples and shrines to pray for the enemy's defeat. The first Mongol attack, in the autumn of 1274, had been thwarted by a typhoon that devastated the invading fleet, but another attempt was expected at any time. This country-wide defense effort was linked in complex ways to local tensions between bakufu officials and Nichiren's followers in the Suruga area. The Hojo shogunal regents, the wield- ers of actual power in the bakufu, had used the need for heightened defense measures as an opportunity to extend the hegemony of their own, Hojo, family at the expense of the direct vassals of the shogun (gokenin ...), leading to friction between the two groups. Power was increasingly monopolized by the head of the main Hojo house (tokuso ...; Hori Kyotsu, 1974, 193-96). At the time of these events, Hojo Tokimune ... (1251-1284) held the position of both shogunal regent (shikken ...) and tokuso. Under his leadership, govern- ment affairs came to be decided by the private Hojo family council (yoriai ...), independently of the formal council of state (hyojoshu ...) and other bakufu agencies. Suruga province lay within the Hojo head's personal domain (tokuso ryo ...), so local surveillance was especially strict. In addition, in Suruga, Nichiren numbered several direct vassals of the shogun among his followers: the Takahashi and Yui in the lower Fuji district (Shimokata), and the Nanjo and Ishikawa in the upper Fuji district (Kamikata), were families of the direct vassals of the shogun. Thus there were preexisting political tensions between the tokuso government and some of Nichiren's leading supporters in Suruga (Takagi 1965, 199, 216-17). Among the latter, Nanjo Tokimitsu and Ishikawa Hyoe Nyudo ... ... were also stewards. In part because of their local influence, these indi- viduals had emerged as leaders among Nichiren's lay devotees in the Fuji area; at the same time, however, as bakufu-appointed stewards, they were especially vulnerable to pressure from the authorities. In 1277, two years before the events at Atsuhara, Nichiren had warned Tokimitsu about precisely this danger:

If word spreads that you appear to be a devotee of the Lotus Sutra, then those close to you as well as those with whom you have no particular connection will all go out of their way to admonish you, as though they were your friends, tell- ing you that if you place faith in Nichiren you will go astray and will incur the displeasure of the authorities.... So it is best not to casually let your loyalties be known. Those possessed by a great devil will persuade one person to recant and then, having toppled him, use him as a snare for capturing many others.

("Ueno-dono gohenji" ..., Teihon 2: 1308-1309)

Nichiren and his followers had for some time been targeted by bakufu offi- cials as a potentially disruptive group because of their outspoken criticism of other Buddhist teachings and institutions. When the first communication from the Mongol empire had arrived in 1268, demanding that Japan enter into a tribu- tary relationship or be subdued by force, Nichiren and his followers saw this as fulfillment of a prediction made earlier in his admonitory treatise Rissho ankoku ron ... (On establishing the true Dharma and bringing peace to the country), submitted to the bakufu in 1260. In this work, based on predic- tions in the sutras, Nichiren had asserted that in consequence of neglecting the true Dharma, Japan would suffer invasion from abroad. After the first Mongol demand, Nichiren renewed his memorializing of top officials to cease support for monks and temples espousing teachings other than the Lotus, including eminent monks of the major temples in Kamakura patronized by the Hojo. Nichiren's arrest and exile to Sado in 1271 seems to have been part of a larger move on the bakufu's part to quell dissident elements at home in preparation for mobilizing the country's defenses (Takagi 1965, 189; Kawazoe 1984, 109-10). In the wake of the 1274 Mongol attack, with tensions mounting in preparation for a renewed attempt, Nichiren foresaw that Suruga was a place where conflict between his community and the authorities could easily erupt, and he repeat- edly warned his followers to be careful. For example, in a letter to the lay monk Takahashi Nyudo ..., a prominent devotee in Kajima in Suruga, Nichiren explained why he had not stopped to visit him after leaving Kamakura en route to Minobu in 1274:

Suruga province is the domain of the governor of Sagami [the regent and tokuso, Hojo Tokimune], and in the Fuji area in particular there are many people connected to the widows [of ranking bakufu officials] who harbor resentment toward me, considering me to be an enemy of the late lay monks of Saimyoji ... and Gokurakuji ... [the former regent Hojo Tokiyori ... and his co-signer or rensho ..., Hojo Shigetoki ...].4 I was concerned that, should they get word [that I had visited you,] it would bring grief to all of you. Up until now I have not even replied to your messages, fear- ing to cause you trouble. I always tell the monks [that is, my disciples] to avoid the area of Kajima in Fuji in their travels, but I am still anxious about what may happen.

("Takahashi Nyudo-dono gohenji" ..., Teihon 2: 1089)

In repeated letters to other followers as well, Nichiren emphasized the need to be united against a possible threat, saying, "Tell the people in Suruga to by all means be of one mind" ("Joren-bo gosho" ... [1274], Teihon, 2: 1078; "Misawa sho" ... [1278], Teihon 2: 1443).

Confrontations at Local Temples

Trouble in the Fuji district of Suruga first surfaced in the local temples men- tioned above, where monks who were Nichiren's followers came into conflict with temple administrators. The first incident occurred at Ryusenji in Atsuhara around 1276, when the temple's deputy administrator (injudai ...), one Hei no Sakon Nyudo Gyochi ......, confronted the Nichiren group. We know about this incident from the Ryusenji moshijo ..., a petition of protest to bakufu officials written by Nichiren, possibly with Nikko's collabora- tion, in 1279.5 According to this document, Gyochi told the Nichiren followers, "The Lotus Sutra is not a teaching on which one can rely." He demanded that they immediately cease reciting it and instead recite the Amida Sutra and the invocation of the Buddha Amida's name, requiring that they sign an oath to that effect if they wished to secure their position and livelihood within the temple (Teihon 2: 1681). One of them, a Mikawa-bo Raien ..., gave in and wrote the oath as demanded. The others refused and were accordingly evicted from their individual lodging temples (jubo ...). One of these monks, Nichizen, left Ryusenji and went to Kawai, where he had relatives. Nisshu and Nichiben had no one on whom to rely and refused either to write the oath or to leave Ryusenji. Though stripped of their position and temple lodgings, they managed to remain on the Ryusenji precincts, possibly working small private landhold- ings in their possession with the aid of local farmers who were their supporters (Hori Nichiko 1974, 1: 136).

Historian Takagi Yutaka (1965, 205) suggests that Gyochi may have been a Pure Land devotee, and that the conflict between him and Nisshu, Nichiben, and the others may have reflected a polarization of the Ryusenji community into those with Pure Land allegiances and those who, being Nichiren's follow- ers, revered the Lotus Sutra alone. If so, one can well imagine that, especially for the Nichiren side, a split of this kind over questions of orthopraxy might have played an important role in delineating the two sides of the conflict. However, as Takagi also notes, it would have been but one of the factors aggravating ten- sions within Ryusenji. According to the Ryusenji petition, Gyochi had for some time abused his position as the temple's deputy administrator for his own profit and does not seem to have been someone deeply concerned about the proper forms of Buddhist practice. This document-which charges that Gyochi perse- cuted Nichiren's followers in order to cover up his own offenses-accuses him, among other things, of having a monk named Izumi-bo Renkai ... cut up a copy of the Lotus Sutra and recycle the paper for building repairs; of appro- priating roofing materials belonging to the temple community for his private use; of extracting fines (perhaps a bribe?) from the monk Hyobu-bo Join ..., described as an ignorant thief, and then appointing him to the position of kuso; of mobilizing the peasants on temple lands to hunt quail and deer for consumption in the temple superintendent's quarters; and of poisoning the fish in the temple pond to sell at the local market (Teihon 2: 1681). Apart from the truth or falsehood of these charges, Gyochi's surname and title-Hei no Sakon Nyudo-suggest that he was only a lay monk and also that he belonged to that branch of the Taira (a.k.a. Hei ...) family who were hereditary Hojo vassals; he may thus have owed his appointment as deputy temple administrator to Hojo connections and local influence rather than clerical qualifications (Takagi 1965, 212). The identity of Ryusenji's chief temple administrator at this time is unknown, and Gyochi appears to have been answerable only to the bakufu.6 Whether or not he himself was a Pure Land devotee, Gyochi might still have objected to the growing presence at Ryusenji of a faction not amenable to his control. One can easily imagine that their devotion to the Lotus alone as the only teaching valid for the age would have provided the Nichiren clerics with a ratio- nale for resisting any unwelcome authority external to their own group. At the same time, because their religious identity lay precisely in this Lotus exclusiv- ism, they were vulnerable on this point; if required to perform some rite or offer some incantation not based on the Lotus Sutra, they would have to refuse if they were not to betray their own commitment. We shall return to this issue below.

Nichiren's disciples at other local temples experienced similar conflicts with temple authorities. In 1278, at Jissoji in Iwamoto, a monk known as Owari Ajari ... drew on the Nirvaa Sutra as cited in the Fahua xuanyi ... (Profound meaning of the Lotus), the Lotus Sutra commentary of the Tiantai founder Zhiyi ... (538-597), to question the propriety of the Nichiren monks' criticisms of other teachings. We know about this from a letter that Nichiren wrote to a disciple living at Jissoji, one Buzen-ko Nichigen ..., who had sought Nichiren's advice on the matter. Nichiren's reply, dated 1/16 of that year, explains that the word myo ... in the Lotus Sutra's title has the meaning not only of the non-differentiated absolute (zettai-myo ...), in which all teachings are opened and integrated into the one vehicle, but also of relative hierarchy (sotai- myo ...), in which value distinctions between "true" and "provisional" must be acknowledged; from this perspective, he argues, only the Lotus Sutra can open the coarse to reveal the subtle. "To [cause others to] sever attachment to the provisional and enter the true is the constant teaching approach of Sakyamuni, Prabhutaratna, and all buddhas of the ten directions" (Jissoji gosho ..., Teihon 2: 1435).

While it is not known whether the dispute at Jissoji escalated beyond this doctrinal disagreement, Nichiren's letter to Buzen-ko refers to a confrontation at yet another local temple, Shijukuin in Kanbara, where Nikko was based. That same year, a Shijukuin administrator (jimu ...), Nii Risshi Gon'yo ......, seized the lodging temples and their attached lands held by Nikko and those of his fellow monks who were Nichiren's disciples, and expelled Nikko and the oth- ers from the temple. This incident is known from the Shijukuin moshijo ... ..., a petition of protest that Nikko wrote in the third month of 1278 on behalf of himself and Nichiren's other disciples at Shijukuin.7 According to this docu- ment, Gon'yo had asserted that the Nichiren faction (torui ...), while claiming to uphold the Buddha Dharma, in fact embraced "a heterodox path, a great evil teaching" (gedo daijakyo ...); thus the monastic assembly had reached a group decision to expel them (nsz 2: 93).

Nikko's strategy in this petition was to counterattack using the same doctri- nal grounds that had been deployed against him. Only the Lotus, he retorted, contains a statement to the effect that it is foremost among all teachings that the Buddha "has preached, now preaches, or will preach" (t 9.31b). "To repu- diate [on the basis of the Lotus] the [provisional] teachings of skillful means is not some fraudulent teaching of Nichiren Shonin but altogether represents the golden words of Sakyamuni Buddha, the purpose for which he appeared in this world." To denounce monks of the true Dharma as heretics was outra- geous, Nikko declared; Gon'yo should be quickly summoned to face them and the rights and wrongs of the matter investigated (nsz 2: 93-94).

In this way, monks who were Nichiren's disciples at temples in the Fuji district came into conflict with temple administrators and higher-ranking prelates over the issue of their Lotus exclusivism. Lotus Sutra devotion was widespread, by no means the monopoly of Nichiren's community, and it is difficult to imagine that anyone, Tendai monks in particular, would have regarded the Lotus Sutra itself as an evil or heterodox teaching.8 The problem lay rather in the position of Nichiren's followers that the Lotus alone is true. Not only was it possible to raise legitimate doctrinal objections to such a claim, but this stance could read- ily translate into a religiously mandated basis for resisting any authority outside Nichiren's own community. As Takagi notes (1965, 206-208), Gon'yo's charges as cited in Nikko's petition suggest that Nichiren's following at Shijukuin had grown to the point where they were considered a "faction" and thus seen as a threat needing to be countered.

The Atsuhara Persecution

Though ejected from their personal lodgings at Ryusenji by Gyochi, the tem- ple's deputy administrator, Nikko's converts Nisshu and Nichiben continued to reside on the temple precincts and presumably also continued to preach to their lay followers. Frustrated at his inability to rid Ryusenji of Nichiren's disciples, Gyochi appears to have enlisted the support of the local agency of the bakufu (mandokoro ...) in the lower Fuji district in order to harass those disciples' lay supporters. At this point, what had begun as a confrontation within the temple community began to escalate into actual persecution.

Our chief source for subsequent events is the Ryusenji moshijo, a petition of protest that Nichiren composed in the tenth month of 1279 for submission to bakufu authorities; part of it may have been written by Nikko. According to this document, in the fourth month of that year, during a festival associated with the nearby Asama (or Sengen) Shrine ..., local officials acting at Gyochi's insti- gation attacked and wounded with a sword a Lotus Sutra practitioner, identified as the "son of Shiro" ...;9 in the eighth month, one "son of Yashiro-bo" ..., possibly the same individual, was beheaded-an act possibly intended as a symbolic stand-in for the beheading of Nisshu and the other Lotus devotees at Ryusenji (Teihon 2: 1681; s.v. "Yatoji Nyudo," Ibun jiten, 1146). Matters culmi- nated in the ninth month, during the harvest, when twenty lay believers were arrested on charges of stealing grain.

What exactly occurred on that occasion is not altogether clear. According to the Ryusenji petition, Gyochi filed charges to the effect that, on 9/21, Nisshu, mounted on horseback and leading a company of persons armed with bows and arrows, had burst into the precincts of Gyochi's quarters at the temple and forcibly seized the rice harvest from his fields, removing it to Nisshu's lodging. Nisshu and his supporters vehemently denied the charges, and a letter from Nichiren dated 10/12 suggests that the facts were quite the reverse; Gyochi's fac- tion had been the ones who had forcibly seized the harvest from "several tens of fields" belonging to peasant Lotus devotees ("Hoki-dono gohenji," Teihon 2: 1676). The same letter specifically names two individuals, Daishin-bo ... and Yatoji Nyudo ..., as the persons whose actions, prompted by Gyochi, had led to the injury and killing of followers in Atsuhara. Daishin-bo appears to be the same person as Daishin Ajari, an influential disciple of Nichiren in Kamakura who seems to have been called to the Fuji area sometime around 1275 to assist Nikko's proselytizing efforts. He wavered for a time in his allegiance, briefly rejoining Nichiren's followers by 1278, but then decisively turned against them (s.v. "Daishin Ajari," "Daishin Ajari no bo," and "Daishin-bo," Ibun jiten 685-86). Yatoji Nyudo was a brother of the three men among the twenty peas- ants arrested who would later be put to death. According to Nikko's record, it was also at Yatoji's petition that the twenty were sent to Kamakura for examina- tion and sentencing (Honzon bun'yo cho, nsz 2 :116). Evidently personal betray- als from within Nichiren's community and among family members, as well as opposition from without, played a role in the persecution.

Because Atsuhara lay within the domain of the head of the Hojo clan (tokuso), the matter fell under the jurisdiction of the Hojo's board of retainers (samurai dokoro ...). Nonetheless, sending the prisoners all the way to Kamakura for examination by the tokuso's private judiciary would seem an excessive response to an incident of local theft, suggesting that the charges against them may have served as a pretext for attempting to break the influence of Nichiren's follow- ers in Suruga. This suggestion gains strength from the identity of the official to whose custody they were remanded-none other than Hei (or Taira) no Saemon no jo Yoritsuna ...... (d. 1293), deputy head of the board of retainers. Yoritsuna was a hereditary vassal of the Hojo and one of the chief pillars of the tokuso government. He appears to have been a relative of Gyochi. He was also the same magistrate who, eight years earlier, had ordered Nichiren's arrest and exile to Sado.

Nichiren's Response and the Fate of Those Arrested

Although he remained at Minobu throughout these events and was not himself the direct target of attack, Nichiren nonetheless emerges as a central figure in the Atsuhara affair, as almost all information concerning it comes from his writings. Nichiren kept himself closely informed of the circumstances as they developed and provided detailed guidance through an efficient network of disciples who acted as messengers between Minobu in Kai, Fuji in Suruga, and Kamakura in Musashi. His assertive leadership, even at a distance, and his ability to provide a compelling interpretation of events can be seen in his responses to the arrest. This section will briefly review how matters unfolded, as reconstructed from notices in Nichiren and Nikko's writings.

The first indication of the trouble at Atsuhara appears in a fragment of a let- ter Nichiren addressed to Nikko and others-presumably Nisshu, Nichiben, and other disciples from Ryusenji-dated 9/26, five days after the arrests. In it Nichiren tells them, "I have already reported this matter to Brahma, Indra, and the sun and moon [deities]. They will not dare go against [their vow to Sakyamuni Buddha to protect Lotus Sutra devotees]. You should each think of this [occurrence] as the workings of heaven ("Hoki-dono narabi ni shonin gochu" ..., fragment no. 438, Teihon 4: 2874). Unfortunately, all but the last few lines of this letter have been lost. Nonetheless, judging from the date and content, this surviving passage would seem to represent Nichiren's ini- tial response to receiving news of the arrests: to assure his disciples that this was no mere arbitrary event but a portent of some larger significance yet to unfold.

A few days later, on 10/1, Nichiren wrote at length to his followers in Kama- kura where the prisoners had been taken, sending his letter in care of Shijo Saburozaemon no jo Yorimoto ... or Shijo Kingo ... (1229-1296), one of his chief lay devotees. After Nichiren's death, it would be given the title "Shonin gonanji" ... (On the sage's ordeals). In this letter, Nichiren reminds his followers that persecution is predicted in the Lotus Sutra itself, where it says, "Since hatred and resentment of this sutra abound even while the Tathagata is present, how much worse it will be after his nirvana!" (t 9. 31b). He asserts that, in meeting great trials at the hands of the authorities, he and by implication his disciples are the very ones fulfilling the sutra's predic- tions: "Had I not appeared in the Final Dharma Age, the Buddha would have been a great liar, and Prabhutaratna and the other buddhas of the ten directions [who testified to the truth of the Lotus Sutra at the assembly on Vulture Peak] would have borne witness to great falsehood" (Teihon 2: 1673). Nichiren's follow- ers in Kamakura may have had access to the prisoners, as Nichiren also suggests what to say to them:

Continue to encourage those ignorant Atsuhara people but don't threaten them.10 Tell them to be fully resolved. They should think that a good outcome would be astonishing and [instead] expect that the worst will certainly occur. If they think that they are hungry, tell them about the realm of hungry ghosts. If they complain that they are cold, tell them about the eight cold hells. If they say that they are frightened, tell them that a pheasant pursued by a hawk or a mouse stalked by a cat feels no differently than they do. (Teihon 2: 1674-75)

From Nichiren's perspective, to renounce faith in order to escape harassment by worldly authorities would only result in more painful retribution in the life to come; thus he urges that the prisoners ready themselves for whatever ordeal the bakufu may have in store and not delude themselves into thinking that they may escape. Nichiren then extends a similar warning to his followers in general:

If your resolve should slacken even in the slightest, demons will seize the advantage. We ordinary worldlings are so foolish that we fear neither the warnings in the sutras and treatises [which are close at hand,] nor matters at a distance. But close your eyes and imagine [what will happen] if Hei [no Sae- mon, that is, Yoritsuna] and [Akita no] jo [Adachi Yasumori] unloose their anger upon our entire following. (Teihon 2: 1674)

This reference to the wrath of Hei no Yoritsuna and Adachi Yasumori ...-after the regent, the two most powerful figures in bakufu-suggests that Nichiren saw the arrest of the Atsuhara peasants as possibly signaling a move against his followers as a whole, and he adds, "If people muster armed men to put down our following, saying that we are going to raise a disturbance, you must write to me here at once" (Teihon 2: 1675).

In that same, tenth month, Nichiren drafted a petition to bakufu officials- technically, a refutation of charges (chinjo ...)-in defense of Nisshu, Nichi- ben, and his other disciples at Ryusenji, rebutting Gyochi's accusations. Known as the Ryusenji moshijo, mentioned above, it is written in the personae of Nichi- ben and Nisshu and was presumably submitted under their names (Teihon 2: 1677-82).11 In this petition, Nichiren argues that exclusive devotion to the Lotus Sutra, for which Nisshu, Nichiben, and others have been expelled and their lay followers attacked, is the only thing that can protect Japan against the Mongol threat. We will return to this theme in his writings below.

In what appears to be a cover letter for the petition he had readied on Nisshu and Nichiben's behalf, Nichiren also wrote to Nikko, Nisshu, and Nichiben on 10/12, giving detailed instructions ("Hoki-dono gohenji" ...., Teihon, 2: 1676). These three may have hurried to Kamakura to assist the prisoners, though the record does not explicitly state this (Hori Nichiko 1974, 1: 141). Should the prisoners be released with some guarantee of their security, Nichiren says, the monks should not seek legal redress by submitting the petition. But should they need to press the matter with the bakufu's board of inquiry (monchujo ...), they should concentrate their statements on the culpability of Gyochi and his associates for the violence against Nichiren's followers at Atsuhara. If Gyochi produces witnesses, they should say that those witnesses are the very persons who supported him in stealing the harvest from the Atsuhara peasants. If he produces written statements, they should denounce them as forgeries. They should protest vehemently, in the hope that "those above may get word of it." Nichiren seems to have believed that, whatever the actions of bakufu subordinates, Hojo Tokimune, the regent himself, would not take action against his followers without clear evi- dence of wrongdoing (see, for example, similar statements in "Kubo-no-ama gozen gohenji" ..., Teihon 2: 1502-1503, and "Shonin gonanji," 2: 1674). No matter what, Nichiren admonishes, his followers must not let themselves be per- suaded to sign oaths (kishomon ...); the focus of any court proceedings should be confined to the acts of theft and violence committed by Gyochi's side. Nichiren appears to have been quite knowledgeable about the bakufu's judicial system, per- haps because, earlier in his career, he himself had negotiated a lawsuit on behalf of Nagoe-no-ama ..., a lay nun who was the estate proprietor (ryoshu ...) of the manor where Kiyosumidera (or Seichoji) ... in Awa, the temple where he had become a monk, was located (Takagi 1970, 52; Kawazoe 1984, 83-85).

Only one other explicit reference to those arrested occurs in Nichiren's extant writings, in a brief letter, again to Nikko and his disciples, dated a few days later, on 10/17. At this point, Nichiren urged them to take action with the judicial bureau. He had clearly received word that interrogation of the prisoners had begun.

Your message of the 15th arrived [today], on the 17th. You say that, at the time of their interrogation [gokanki no toki], they chanted Namu-myoho-renge- kyo. This is no ordinary event. Perhaps the ten raksasas [who vowed to protect believers] entered the person of Hei no Kingo [Yoritsuna] to test the devo- tees of the Lotus Sutra. That would be like the case of the youth of the Snow Mountains or King Sibi [who were both tested by the gods]. Or perhaps [as the "Fortitude" chapter says], "Evil demons will enter their bodies [to injure devotees of the Lotus]." [That the prisoners were able to maintain their resolve] is the meaning of the oath sworn by Sakyamuni, Prabhutaratna, the buddhas of the ten directions, Brahma, Indra, and other deities to protect practitioners of the Lotus Sutra in the fifth five-hundred-year period [that begins the Final Dharma age]. ("Hendoku iyaku gosho" ..., Teihon 2: 1683)

By standing firm under interrogation, the Atsuhara peasants had proved their faith in Nichiren's eyes, graduating in his estimation from "ignorant people" to devotees meriting equally with himself the name of "practitioners of the Lotus Sutra" (Hokekyo no gyoja ......). The term gokanki ... (the anger of superiors or punishment inflicted by them) here is somewhat ambiguous, and it is not clear how far proceedings against the prisoners had advanced by the time Nichiren wrote this. Whatever the case, it is significant that, judging from this passage, he understood the protection of the buddhas and tutelary deities to mean, not that devotees of the Lotus Sutra would be spared harsh trials, but that they would be able to maintain faith despite them.

Nichiren's extant writings make no further mention of the prisoners from Atsuhara. The only direct reference to their fate occurs in Nikko's Honzon bun'yo cho, which is also the earliest surviving notice of the identity of the three who were executed. How long after the event he recorded the matter is unknown.12 The passage in question, an explanatory note inserted into a list of names of fol- lowers on whom he had bestowed mandala honzon inscribed by Nichiren, reads as follows:

*Jinshiro ... (elder brother), resident of Atsuhara village in the lower Fuji district.

* Yagoro ... (younger brother), resident of the same village in the lower Fuji district.

*Yajiro ... [or Yarokuro ...;13 younger brother?], resident of Atsuhara village in the lower Fuji district.

These three were among twenty disciples of Echigo-bo [Nichiben] and Shimotsuke-bo [Nisshu]. They took faith in the first year of the Koan era (1278). At the petition of their younger brother Yatoji Nyudo, they were arrested and taken to Kamakura. Eventually they were beheaded. That was the doing of Hei no Saemon Nyudo [Yoritsuna]. He had his son, Iinuma Hangan ... (age thirteen), shoot them mercilessly with hikime arrows and ordered them to say the nenbutsu. But though he pressed them in this way twice and even three times, not one of the twenty would say it. He sent for these three, who were the leaders, and had them beheaded. The remaining seventeen were impris- oned but eventually released. Fourteen years later, Hei no Nyudo and Hangan, father and son, plotted rebellion and were destroyed. That both father and son [met their end in this way] was no ordinary matter. They had incurred in this life the punishment [genbachi ...] of the Lotus Sutra. (nsz 2: 116)14

Hikime ... were blunt tipped, hollow arrows that emitted an eerie whistling sound when shot, used to banish demons from ritual sites. While they could not kill, they could certainly cause pain and terrify. Even if the prisoners had been guilty as charged, this sort of abuse, and especially the beheading of the three leaders among those arrested, represented by the standards of the day an extreme punishment for the offense of stealing grain (see Takagi 1965, 220, note 23 for comparison with two other, roughly contemporaneous cases). This harsh reprisal would lend credence to Nichiren's reading of events as a deliberate strike against his followers.

The Nichiren tradition reads the Atsuhara persecution as epitomizing the inev- itable conflict between devotees of the Lotus Sutra and those who oppose them out of deluded attachment to provisional teachings, and the conduct of those arrested, as exemplifying the ideal stance of "not begrudging bodily life" for the sutra's sake. Modern scholars, in contrast, have tended to see these events in terms of heroic peasant resistance to oppressive authority, expressed in terms of devotion to a truth transcending worldly power and class distinctions (see Takagi 1965, 218; Sato 1994, 189-211, and 2003, 300-309). However, we have no sources that would offer insight into the thoughts of the Atsuhara martyrs themselves. Most martyrs in the later medieval Nichiren tradition would be monks who voluntarily sought public debate with eminent clerics of other schools or who set out of their own initiative to admonish the emperor, shogun, or local officials, fully understanding the risks involved. In the case of the three Atsuhara believers who were beheaded, one cannot help but think that they may simply have been caught up in events and paid the ultimate price for a conflict not of their making. Yet if the interroga- tion took place as Nikko describes, they were repeatedly offered a choice, and, although they had been Nichiren's followers only since the previous year, they steadfastly refused to recant and instead gave up their lives. This brief passage in Nikko's record suggests that the resolve to die if need be to uphold one's faith in the Lotus Sutra was not confined to Nichiren and the educated monks who were his close disciples but was indeed shared by some of his humblest followers.

Aftermath of the Persecution

For a while, Nichiren seems to have expected that the Atsuhara affair presaged an attack on his followers at large. To the lay nun Jimyo-ama ..., the widow of Takahashi Nyudo, he wrote, "As for the business in Atsuhara, you should be pre- pared for what may happen," and warned that lesser-ranking officials might have forged orders from the regent in order to harass his followers ("Kubo-no-ama gozen gohenji," Teihon 2: 1502-1503).15 While his fears about full-scale persecu- tion did not materialize, the situation in the Fuji district remained precarious. Nichiren arranged for Nisshu and Nichiben to leave Suruga and stay in safety with his disciple Iyo-bo ...-later known as Nitcho ...-in Shimosa.16 Lay believers in the Atsuhara area were evidently hunted by the authorities for some time. A letter from Nichiren to Nanjo Tokimitsu dated 7/2/1280, nearly a year after the arrests, thanks him for hiding lay followers, including a certain shrine priest who was Nisshu's disciple. "If it becomes difficult to keep them there, you can send the shrine priest and the others here [to Minobu]," he wrote. "But even if his wife and children remain there, no one will be looking for them, so I think it would be best if you could keep them until things quiet down" ("Ueno-dono gohenji," Teihon 2: 1766-67).17 Bakufu authorities were not slow to note that Tokimitsu had used his influence as steward to shelter individuals wanted by the law. Another letter from Nichiren, written in the winter of 1280, suggests that they retaliated with economic sanctions:

Because you protected the Atsuhara people, the people of this country look upon you as [a traitor, like the rebels Taira no] Masakado ... of the Johei era (931-38) or [Abe no] Sadato ... of the Tengi era (1053-58). This is solely because you have offered your life for the Lotus Sutra. Heaven in no way regards you as a man who has betrayed his sovereign. In addition, your small estate has been drained by repeated demands for corvée labor, to the point where you yourself cannot keep a horse, and your wife and children lack nec- essary clothing. ("Ueno-dono gohenji," Teihon 2: 1829-30)

Despite the threat of continued harassment, no mass defection from Nichiren's following seems to have occurred in the wake of the Atsuhara persecution, such as he describes following his exile to Sado eight years earlier. By this point, his community of Lotus devotees was more effectively organized, and Nichiren was more readily able to communicate with them than had been the case during the Sado exile; in addition, this time the bakufu had not targeted Nichiren himself and in the end evidently took no action against believers outside the Fuji area. Nonetheless, for those involved, it was ordeal enough, and Nichiren's writings relevant to the affair express what he thought essential to convey at a moment of utmost urgency about the meaning of encountering great trials for the Lotus Sutra's sake. His writings at the time, touched on above, both developed themes in his earlier work and helped to establish a model for how followers of the Lotus should meet tests of their faith. It is to those themes that we now turn.

Analysis of the Atsuhara Affair

As outlined above, several interrelated tensions and conflicting interests con- tributed to the violence against Nichiren's following in Atsuhara: between Gyochi, the Ryusenji deputy administrator, and the monks who had become Nichiren's followers; between local officials of the bakufu with whom Gyochi was allied and the peasants who were lay supporters of Nichiren's disciples; and, in the background, between representatives of the tokuso government, expand- ing their influence in conjunction with defense operations against the Mongols, and the direct vassals of the shogun, some of whom, in Suruga, were followers of Nichiren (Takagi 1965, 217). The bakufu's defense efforts also included the subduing of disruptive elements within its sphere of influence, and Nichiren and his following-vocal in their criticisms of other teachings and of the eminent monks who upheld them and their patrons among bakufu officials-had long since been identified as a potentially troublesome group. If Hei no Yoritsuna did indeed take charge of interrogating the prisoners as Nikko describes, personal animus on his part toward Nichiren may also have been involved. Due to source limitations, it is difficult to know the historical facts of the Atsuhara persecution in any detail. What we can know, however, is how Nichiren understood the reli- gious meaning of the affair.

The second part of this article will discuss themes that emerge in Nichiren and Nikko's writings in connection with the persecution and how they develop Nichiren's lifelong teaching about the importance of being ready to give one's life for the Lotus Sutra. It will also touch briefly on how their references to the Atsuhara affair contributed to a normative model of faith and practice for the later Nichiren tradition.

Rissho Ankoku and the Mongol Threat

In their petitions to the bakufu protesting the harassment of disciples in the Fuji district, Nichiren and Nikko both took the opportunity of addressing govern- ment officials to reassert Nichiren's teaching that establishing the true Dharma would bring peace to the country (rissho ankoku ...). This principle is best known from the Rissho ankoku ron, Nichiren's admonitory treatise submitted to the influential former regent Hojo Tokiyori in 1260. In this work, drawing on "nation-protecting" sutras detailing the calamities that will befall a country where the true Dharma is not upheld, Nichiren argued that Japan was beset by famine, disease, earthquakes, and other disasters because the people as a whole had turned away from the "single good of the true vehicle" (jitsujo no ichizen ...) and instead come to rely on the "inferior" teaching of the exclusive nen- butsu. Were his warnings not heeded, he wrote, two further disasters-rebellion within the country and invasion from abroad-would surely occur. The submis- sion of the Rissho ankoku ron is known in the Nichiren tradition as Nichiren's first act of "admonishing the state" (kokka kangyo ...) to cease patron- age of monks devoted to other teachings and support faith in the Lotus alone. Nichiren also "admonished the state" on two further occasions: at the time of his confrontation with Hei no Yoritsuna in 1271, when the latter had him inter- rogated and then arrested and exiled; and again in 1274, after he had been par- doned from exile to Sado and returned to Kamakura, when, by Nichiren's own account, Yoritsuna summoned him to ask his views on when the Mongols would attack. Because both the Shijukuin moshijo and Ryusenji moshijo were submit- ted to the bakufu and both explicitly reassert the rissho ankoku principle, they might together be considered a fourth act of "admonishing the state," although the tradition does not speak of them in this way. Yet undoubtedly they helped set the precedent for later medieval moshijo or admonitory petitions submitted by Hokkeshu monks to the emperor, the shogun, or lesser officials, almost all of which restated the argument of the Rissho ankoku ron or even appended a copy of it (Watanabe 1976, 135-40; Stone 2002, 274-79). Below we will consider some key passages from both petitions.

In the 1279 Ryusenji petition, writing under the names of Nisshu and Nichi- ben, Nichiren immediately establishes his own interpretive context for the events at Atsuhara, quite different from that of local authorities or of the bakufu. In his representation, the issue at stake is nothing less than a choice between embrac- ing true or false teachings, on which the survival of the country depends:

In his suit, [Gyochi] says in essence that we, Nisshu and Nichiben, calling our- selves disciples of the monk Nichiren, assert that [devotion to] sutras other than the Lotus Sutra and the [rites performed by] Esoteric (shingon) adepts will not be efficacious, whether in this life or the next. Concerning this charge, [we say]: Our teacher Nichiren Shonin [whose teaching Gyochi disparages] has since the Shoka era (1257-1259) observed the great comets, earthquakes, and other signs and, pondering them in light of the sutras, concluded that, in the country of Japan today, people remain attached to provisional, inferior [teachings] while the sutra of the true teaching has become lost and obscured; therefore two disasters unprecedented in prior ages were bound to arise: the disaster of revolt within one's own domain and the disaster of attack by a for- eign country. Thinking of how to bring order to the country and counter these great calamities, in the Bunno era (1260), he submitted to the authorities a work in one fascicle called Rissho ankoku ron. What he foretold in that treatise has all come true, just like a prophecy from the Buddha's golden mouth. ... The presence in the country of a sage [like Nichiren] is a great joy for Japan, a great grief for the Mongols. He can summon the dragons and have them sink the enemy ships beneath the sea; he can command Brahma and Indra to subdue the Mongol king. If the ruler is indeed a wise man, why does he not make use of this sage, rather than lament in vain at the threat of a foreign country?... Now we, Nisshu and others, set aside lesser sutras and recite the Lotus Sutra, promoting it throughout the Dharma realm, and chant Namu-myoho-renge- kyo. Is this not [conduct demonstrating] exceptional loyalty? Should questions remain about the details of this affair, then surely eminent monks should be summoned [to debate with us] and the rights and wrongs of the matter deter- mined! (Teihon 2: 1677-78, 1680)

Nikko's Shijukuin petition, written in 1278, the year before, similarly asserts:

The teachers of Esoteric Buddhism (shingon) and the other schools fail to dis- tinguish between Hinayana and Mahayana, shallow and profound, ignorant of the confusion between true and provisional teachings. ... In vain they trust in their master-disciple oral transmissions and perform their secret rites, but these produce no real effect. Thus heaven and earth manifest strange signs, and numerous calamities break out in the country. This is because no one inves- tigates and establishes right and wrong in the realm of Buddhism or distin- guishes between worthy and ignorant monks. The Buddhist law (buppo ...) increases its authority by the majesty of the sovereign's law (obo ...), while the sovereign's law endures and flourishes by the protection of the Buddhist law. How could there be any truth to the charge that those who uphold the true Dharma are heretics?... We ask that the Vinaya master Gon'yo be quickly summoned to debate with us and the truth of the matter investigated!

(nsz 2: 93-94)

By this point, "attack by a foreign country" was no mere abstraction, as it had been when Nichiren submitted the Rissho ankoku ron to the bakufu in 1260, but had already materialized in the 1274 Mongol invasion attempt. The bakufu was now building coastal defenses and mobilizing men against a second assault that was anticipated at any time. Both petitions argue that this state of crisis has resulted from widespread neglect of the Lotus Sutra, and that Nichiren's teach- ing, which the local temple administrators Gon'yo and Gyochi condemn as het- erodox, offers the only hope for saving the country. This is essentially the same argument put forth years previously in Nichiren's Rissho ankoku ron but with two notable differences. First, the polemical target has shifted. Where the Rissho ankoku ron had attacked the exclusive nenbutsu teaching of Honen (1133-1212), the primary focus of criticism in these two petitions is the prayer rituals of shin- gon, by which term Nichiren designated both Taimitsu and Tomitsu Esoteric lineages. During his years on Mt. Minobu (1274-1282), Nichiren's criticisms were increasingly directed against Esoteric Buddhism, largely in connection with the fact that the bakufu was commissioning Esoteric ritualists to pray for a Mon- gol defeat (Kawazoe 1957).18 In 1278, the year before the Atsuhara persecution, Nichiren had in fact produced an "expanded text" (kohon ...) of the Rissho ankoku ron, which includes criticisms of shingon (Teihon 2: 1455-78).

Second, the specific content of the "true Dharma" has become more focused, in accord with the development of Nichiren's thinking over the course of nearly two decades. No longer is it the broadly defined "single good of the true vehi- cle," advocated in the Rissho ankoku ron, which included the Lotus and Nirva?a sutras along with the Esoteric teachings, but rather the heart of the "origin teach- ing" (honmon ...) of the Lotus Sutra alone, hidden in the depths of "The Life Span of the Tathagata" chapter and given concrete form as Nichiren's all-inclu- sive practice of chanting the sutra's daimoku or title (Stone 1999a, 260, 268-70). Nichiren's emphasis on the daimoku as the heart of the honmon section, or latter fourteen chapters of the Lotus Sutra, represents a key development of his thought during and after his exile to Sado (1271-1274). This doctrine, Nichiren says, has never before been revealed but was intended by the Buddha solely for the begin- ning of the Final Dharma Age. Both the 1278 and 1279 petitions refer to it:

Now the supremely awakened world-honored one [Sakyamuni Buddha], thinking far in advance of the time of strife at the beginning of the Final Dharma Age, expounded and left behind a secret art for countering such great disasters. (Ryusenji moshijo, Teihon 2: 1678)

This third secret Dharma [daisan no hiho ..., that is, Nichiren's teaching, the heart of the honmon section of the Lotus Sutra] is all that remains [to be revealed]. It is a Dharma intended solely for the time of strife at the beginning of the Final Dharma Age, for the hour of the calamity of attack by a foreign country, when a great war will break out in the world. It is the secret art by which the ruler can emerge victorious in armed conflict.

(Shijukuin moshijo, nsz 2: 94)19

Both petitions thus represent the impending Mongol attack, not just as kar- mic retribution for neglect of the Lotus Sutra, but as a sign heralding the rev- elation of the Buddha's ultimate teaching. The effect of this rhetorical strategy is to define the present moment as the culmination of the ages-long unfolding of the Buddha Dharma, and Nichiren and his disciples, as its agents, placing them at the center of events. In this way, as Lucia Dolce has observed, Nichiren "transformed history-always the time of those who are in power-into his own time" (1992, 83). One can imagine that the sense of inhabiting-indeed, playing a key role in-a juncture of overwhelming soteriological significance inspired Nichiren's followers with the courage to withstand opposition.20

Nichiren's personal letters and other writings to his followers from the later years of his life generally suggest that, by the time he left Kamakura in 1274 and settled at Minobu, he had abandoned all effort to convince the authorities of his perspective and now regarded the impending Mongol invasion as an evil neces- sary to awaken the Japanese from the sin of "slandering the Dharma." He even said that, in attacking Japan, the Mongol nation acted as an envoy of the heavenly dei- ties, sent to chastise those hostile to practitioners of the Lotus Sutra (for example, in "Itai doshin no koto" ..., Teihon 1: 830). The same letter states:

The destruction of our country would be pitiable. But if [the invasion] fails to materialize, the people of Japan will slander the Lotus Sutra more and more, and they will all fall into the Hell without Respite. As the opponent is power- ful, the country may be destroyed, but slander of the Dharma will be greatly lessened. Thus [an invasion] will be like moxibustion used to treat illness or acupuncture that cures people of disease.

("Itai doshin no koto" ..., Teihon 1: 830)

The Ryusenji and Shijukuin petitions contrast strikingly with the tone of these personal letters, showing Nichiren as still eager to win a public forum for his teaching through an officially sponsored debate with clerics of other schools and to obtain bakufu support. Significantly, both petitions speak of Nichiren's teach- ing as a "secret art" for subduing conflict, analogous to but far more efficacious than the Esoteric rites being commissioned by the bakufu, and the Ryusenji peti- tion refers to Nichiren as someone who can "summon the dragons and have them sink the enemy ships" (Teihon 2: 1678), a clear reference to the destruc- tion of the first invading fleet by a typhoon in 1274.21 It also says that, in expel- ling Nisshu and Nichiben from Ryusenji, Gyochi has put an end to their rites of prayer (gokito ...) that heaven and earth might long endure (Teihon 2: 1681). Nikko's petition similarly says that the expulsion of Nichiren's followers has cut off such prayers at Shijukuin (Shijukuin moshijo, nsz 2: 93). Rather than the Eso- teric prayer rituals currently being sponsored for the defeat of the Mongols, the rites of Nichiren and his disciples, based on the Lotus Sutra, are here presented as those with the real power to save the country.

The difference in attitude between Nichiren's personal letters at this time and the two petitions to the bakufu is most likely one of audience: as long as the authorities rejected his admonitions, vis-à-vis his disciples Nichiren said only that the invasion was inevitable and represented shared retribution for disparag- ing the Lotus Sutra, an evil necessary to awaken the Japanese people from their collective slander of the Dharma. But given the opportunity to again address bakufu officials directly and to hope for a hearing, Nichiren and Nikko reas- serted their claim that support for Nichiren's teaching could even now rescue the country from disaster (Kawazoe 1984, 170-71).

Giving One's Life for the Lotus Sutra

At the time of the Atsuhara affair in 1279, while proclaiming to the authorities the sole power of the Lotus Sutra to save the country, Nichiren stressed to his own followers the inevitability of meeting persecution and the importance of being ready to give up one's life for the sutra's sake. We have already cited his instructions for encouraging the prisoners from Atsuhara by telling them not to entertain false hopes but to be prepared for the worst and maintain their faith throughout ("Shonin gonanji," Teihon 2: 1674-1675). He also admonished his fol- lowers in general that it is better to give up one's life for the Lotus Sutra than to relinquish one's faith in the hopes of placating those in power and avoiding per- secution. Another passage of the same letter reads:

These days men are being sent to Tsukushi [to prepare for the Mongol attack]. Imagine yourselves in the place of those [warriors] who are en route, or who have already arrived. Thus far, none among us has faced this misfortune, but those men are now on the very scene. Should they be killed [in battle], they will be destined for the hells. But although we ourselves now face a compara- bly grave trial, we are sure to become buddhas in the next life. It is like moxa treatment, which hurts at the time but later brings relief.

("Shonin gonanji," Teihon 2: 1674)

And another letter, written to Nanjo Tokimitsu on 11/6/1279, perhaps after the execution of the prisoners, follows in a similar vein:

What I ask is that my disciples make a great vow. We were fortunate enough not to number among those who died in the epidemics last year and the year before. But we can hardly count on escaping the Mongol attack that now threatens. Death is certain in any event, and the grief we will know then [if killed in the invasion] would be no different from that which we will expe- rience [should persecution come upon us] now. Since [death] is the same in either case, you should be ready to give up your life for the Lotus Sutra. Think of it as dew rejoining the sea or dust returning to the earth.

("Ueno-dono gohenji," Te i h o n 2: 1709)

All these exhortations ask that practitioners abandon an attitude of desiring to avoid opposition and to seek security in this life and instead shift their perspec- tive to encompass the life to come. Not only is death ultimately inescapable, but at this particular juncture, it is an imminent likelihood. Given the certainty of death and the impact of actions in this lifetime on one's next existence, attempting to preserve one's present life by recanting faith under pressure from the authorities would be shortsighted. Rather, by upholding the Lotus Sutra even at the cost of one's life, one is assured of future Buddhahood. These 1279 writings vividly express Nichiren's conviction in this regard. He seems to have anticipated that death might soon claim many of his followers, whether from persecution by the authorities or in the next Mongol attack, and he urged them to keep faith to the end.

Punishment in the Present Life

The inevitability of meeting harsh trials for the Lotus Sutra's sake and the cer- tainty of Buddhahood for those who nonetheless persevere were themes that Nichiren had long considered and was by no means addressing for the first time. In particular, they emerge in the letters and other writings he produced amid the dangers and privations of his banishment to Sado. Still, on comparing Nichiren's writings from the Sado period (1271-1274) and his encouragement to his follow- ers during the Atsuhara affair, one finds some notable differences.

During the bleak years of the Sado exile, Nichiren wrestled with the questions of why, when the Lotus Sutra promises "peace and security in the present life," he should have to face persecution, and why, if he was indeed correctly practicing the Lotus Sutra, those who opposed him did not meet with karmic punishment. He addressed these questions in a deeply introspective mode, for example, in his famous treatise Kaimoku sho ... (Opening the eyes, 1272), where he sug- gests that he has encountered his present sufferings in order to expiate offenses he committed in prior lifetimes against the Lotus Sutra and its devotees, just as impurities are removed from iron by forging it in a fire. "Since the beginningless past, I must have been born countless times as an evil ruler who robbed devo- tees of the Lotus Sutra of clothing, food, and lands ... or I may have beheaded countless practitioners of the Lotus Sutra.... But now, when I have vigorously admonished slander of the Dharma in this country and encountered grave tri- als as a result, it must be that my acts of protecting the Dharma in this present life have summoned forth [the retribution for] my past heavy sins" (Teihon 1: 602, 603; see also Hara 1999 and Stone 2012, 137-40). In this context, Nichiren repeatedly quoted the six-fascicle Nirvaa Sutra: "By the power of the merit of protecting the Dharma, one receives lessened retribution [for past offenses] in the present life" (t 12: 877c). Reflecting on why his tormentors failed to experi- ence karmic retribution for their acts against a practitioner of the Lotus Sutra, Nichiren simply noted that when a person's sins are so weighty as to condemn him to the Avici Hell in the next existence, then there may be no sign of punish- ment in his present life (Teihon 1: 601). He also maintained that the protective deities, no longer able to hear the true Dharma, had abandoned Japan.

The theme of expiating past sins by meeting great suffering in the present did not disappear from Nichiren's post-Sado writings; one can find it, for example, in his encouragement to his followers Ikegami Munenaka ..., whose father threatened to disinherit him if he did not abandon his exclusive Lotus devotion ("Kyodai sho" ..., Teihon 1: 924-25), and Ota Jomyo ..., who was trou- bled by a painful illness ("Ota Nyudo-dono gohenji," Teihon 2: 1117-18). "Never doubt that you slandered the Dharma in past lifetimes," he wrote to Munenaka. "If you doubt it, you will not be able to endure the minor sufferings of this life [but will discard your faith in the Lotus Sutra]" (Teihon 1: 924). But in his com- ments on the persecution at Atsuhara, this emphasis on accepting present trials as the fruit of the devotee's own Dharma slander in prior lifetimes is muted. Rather, Nichiren instead stresses that those who act with hostility toward Lotus devotees are "as if swallowing a sword or grasping fire with their hands" ("Kubo-no-ama gozen gohenji," Teihon 2: 1503) and will receive punishment in this very lifetime.

The idea that those who malign the Lotus Sutra or oppress its followers will incur retribution in this life was by no means original to Nichiren. It is suggested in the Lotus Sutra itself, for example, in the vow of the ten female raksasa demons to split into seven pieces the heads of anyone who torments a Dharma preacher (t 9. 59b). Early Japanese Buddhist didactic tales (setsuwa), such as the ninth- century Nihon ryoiki ... (Record of wondrous events in Japan), also con- tain examples of individuals visited with immediate punishment for mocking Lotus reciters (tales I: 19; II: 18; Endo and Kasuga 1967, 116-19, 230-33; trans. Nakamura 1973, 130-31, 185). Nonetheless, the concept of retribution in this life seems to have acquired new force for Nichiren at this time, possibly because events now increas- ingly lent themselves to such a reading. On a broad scale, the imminent Mongol attack certainly seemed to bear out his earlier prediction of foreign invasion. More immediately, several persons among Nichiren's followers who had turned against him shortly before the Atsuhara affair appear to have met sudden death under painful or mysterious circumstances. "Shonin gonanji," the letter Nichiren sent to his followers in Kamakura in the wake of the Atsuhara peasants' arrest, contains this passage:

Ota no Chikamasa ..., Nagasaki Jiro Hyoe no jo Tokitsuna ...., and Daishin-bo fell from their horses; this must be the punishment of the Lotus Sutra. As far as punishment goes, there are four kinds: general, spe- cific, conspicuous, and inconspicuous. The grave epidemics, famines, rebellion, and attacks from a foreign country that have beset Japan are general punish- ments. The epidemics are inconspicuous punishments [myobachi ...]. What happened to Ota and the others are conspicuous, individual punishments.

(Teihon 2: 1673)

Daishin-bo, as mentioned above, seems to have been a disciple who turned against Nichiren around the time of the Atsuhara persecution; Nichiren names him as one of the persons who, instigated by Gyochi, was responsible for the attacks on his followers in Atsuhara ("Hoki-dono gohenji," Teihon 2: 1676). Ota no Chikamasa and Nagasaki Tokitsuna are mentioned only here in this passage and nowhere else in Nichiren's writings. These three were thrown from their horses and presumably killed.22 It is not known exactly when these deaths occurred, possibly during the shrine festival when the lay devotee, the "son of Shiro" was wounded, or in a mêlée surrounding the arrest of the Atsuhara peasants (Hori Nichiko, 1974, 1: 133). "Shonin gonanji" also mentions the inauspicious death of another disciple, the learned Sanmi-bo ..., who had also turned against Nichiren and died in some disturbing manner. "I am sure," Nichiren wrote, "that those people [who oppose us] were secretly frightened by what happened to him" (Teihon 2: 1675; s.v. "Sanmi-bo," Ibun jiten, 426-27).

It must have been a blow to Nichiren's followers that some among them had not only dropped out but betrayed their former comrades in faith, siding with their persecutors in the Atsuhara affair. As three or four such individuals seem to have suffered strange or violent deaths soon thereafter this must have conveyed to Nichiren that karmic retribution for opposing the Lotus Sutra was real and fright- ful. In any event, he now clearly saw punishment in this lifetime as a fate that could be predicted with confidence for those who harassed his followers. Thus he tells Nikko, Nisshu, and Nichiben:

Because the character myo is not empty, there is surely immediate reward and punishment. Hoki-bo [Nikko] and the rest of you should understand this purport deeply and pursue the matter before the tribunal. Ask Hei no Kingo [Yoritsuna] if he has forgotten what I told him when he arrested me during the Bun'ei era [specifically, in 1271]. Finish by telling him that the calamities [I predicted at that time] are not yet over, and that he will further invite the pun- ishment of the ten raksasas. ("Hendoku iyaku gosho," Teihon 2: 1683)

Nichiren also refers to Daishin-bo's fate as "heaven's workings" to inspire fear in their enemies ("Hendoku iyaku gosho," Teihon 2: 1684).

The Atsuhara Persecution and Later Hokkeshu Hagiography

While the Atsuhara persecution remained a local affair, long after the death of its principals, its memory remained. The three who were martyred have been hon- ored especially within the Fuji lineage of the Nichiren Hokkeshu, which regards Nikko as its founder.23 At the same time, their story appears to have played a role, if indirectly, in shaping a normative hagiographic tradition within the Hokkeshu as a whole.

Over the course of the medieval period, leaders within the various Hokkeshu lineages would from time to time take it upon themselves to "admonish the state," remonstrating with government authorities as Nichiren had done to sup- port faith in the Lotus Sutra alone in order to ensure the country's welfare. Some were arrested in consequence and subjected to torture, exile, or other harsh treat- ment; these figures are celebrated as the martyrs of the tradition. Monks such as Kuonjoin Nisshin ... (1407-1488), who admonished the Ashikaga shogunate, or Busshoin Nichio ... (1565-1630), who resisted the reli- gious policies of the hegemons Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu, clearly indicate in their own writings that they were modeling their conduct on Nichiren's, whose actions thus became a template for how devotees opposed by worldly authority should behave. The correspondence between the acts of these later figures and Nichiren's normative example is further heightened in the narrative literature of the Hokkeshu that recounts their deeds; all martyrs, in their acts of rebuking attachment to provisional teachings and "admonish- ing the state," are represented as reenacting the paradigmatic behavior of the founder, Nichiren. Similarly, the story of the Atsuhara martyrs was itself later embellished to stress the similarity between their experience and Nichiren's. The Nichiren Shonin nenpu (Chronology of Saint Nichiren, ...) of Nis- sei ... (1600-1683), for example, tells how Hei no Yoritsuna sent hundreds of warriors to arrest the Atsuhara peasants, confining them in an earthen prison (tsuchiro ...) as Nichiro and other disciples had been confined when Nichiren was arrested in 1271; Nisshu and Nichiben, it says, were on that occasion struck with staves (as happened to Nichiren) and pelted with tiles and rocks (fsy 5: 135, 151; 5: 152).24 In the same way, the story of the Atsuhara believers, as reflected in Nichiren's writings and especially in Nikko's brief historical note in his Honzon bun'yo cho, may have helped to shape the normative model of martyrs in later Hokkeshu hagiography. Three elements in the telling of their story invite par- ticular attention in this regard.

First is the element of confrontation with worldly authority. A scene recur- ring throughout stories of the Nichiren tradition's martyrs is that of a face- to-face encounter between a Hokkeshu practitioner and a high official who persecutes him, threatening him with torture or death unless he recants his faith. Though the Lotus devotee is powerless in worldly terms, he holds the moral high ground and refuses to yield, thus embodying the spirit of "not begrudging bodily life" for the sutra's sake. This recurring tableau had its ori- gins in Nichiren's accounts of his own experiences of face-to-face encoun- ters with Hei no Yoritsuna, when he was summoned to appear before him to answer charges on 9/10/1271, and two days later, when he was arrested and sentenced to exile. In the literature of the Nichiren tradition, a similar scene plays out, for example, in the accounts of Nichinin ... and Nichijitsu ..., dis- ciples of Genmyo Nichiju ... (1314-1392) arrested by the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu; or of Nisshin, imprisoned by Ashikaga Yoshinori; or of Nichio, interrogated by Tokugawa Ieyasu. This confrontation scene is at once both his- tory and hagiography. It has a factual basis in the actions of those Hokkeshu practitioners who did indeed admonish top officials to take faith in the Lotus Sutra and were sometimes punished in consequence. But at the same time, it is a literary topos, illustrating that worldly authority may temporarily prevail by force but is ultimately eclipsed by the moral authority of the Lotus practi- tioner, who will die before compromising his faith. This topos, I would sug- gest, derives not only from Nichiren's descriptions of his own encounters with bakufu authority in the person of the bakufu magistrate Hei no Yoritsuna but also from Nikko's brief account of the confrontation between Yoritsuna and the Atsuhara peasants.

A second element deriving from Nichiren and Nikko's references to the Atsuhara persecution that helped shape the conventions of later Hokkeshu hagiography was the prisoners' reported refusal to chant the nenbutsu, the name of Amida Buddha. As noted above, when Nikko sent him word of their conduct, Nichiren praised the Atsuhara believers for chanting Namu-myoho- renge-kyo during their interrogation. Nikko's own statement in his Honzon bun'yo cho confirms that all twenty refused, even under torture, to chant the nenbutsu. We may also recall that the conflict in Atsuhara is said to have begun when Nisshu, Nichiben, and the other priests who were Nichiren's followers at Ryusenji refused to abandon the Lotus Sutra and chant the nenbutsu in response to Gyochi's demand.

By the time of the Atsuhara affair, Nichiren's criticisms of other Buddhist forms were not focused solely on Honen's Pure Land teaching, as they had been earlier in his career, but had expanded to encompass other teachings and prac- tices. Yet "chanting the nenbutsu" may have still epitomized for his followers the betrayal of his exclusive Lotus devotion and thus carried a particularly negative symbolic value.25 In the Kaimoku sho, written in 1272 during his first winter on Sado, Nichiren had employed the nenbutsu in this negative symbolic way when he wrote, "Whether prompted by good or evil motives, discarding the Lotus Sutra is the karmic act for falling into hell ... . Even if I should be told that my parents will be beheaded if I refuse to say the nenbutsu or if I face other, com- parable grave threats, unless my doctrine is overturned by persons of wisdom, I will not heed them" (Teihon 1: 601). Lotus Sutra devotion alone would not nec- essarily have set Nichiren's followers apart from other Buddhists, as the Lotus was widely revered. What did distinguish them was their exclusive commitment to the Lotus, which allowed no room for other objects of devotion. Refusing to say the nenbutsu-an extremely common practice transcending all social and sectarian boundaries-would have served Nichiren's followers as a marker that defined them over and against others and also as a norm of conduct, a boundary that could not be transgressed without compromising their religious identity as Nichiren's disciples. It is for this reason, perhaps, that opponents such as Gyochi and Yoritsuna made a point of attempting to coerce them into saying it. Refusal to say the nenbutsu, even under threat of torture and death, would become a recurrent theme in hagiographical accounts of the medieval martyrs of the Hokkeshu. For example, the Monto koji ... of Nichiun ... (d. 1425) tells how Nichiju's disciples, Nichinin and Nichijitsu, steadfastly refused to utter the nenbutsu even when subjected to horrific tortures (nsz 5: 84-87). Similarly, the Nisshin Shonin tokugyo ki ..., a seventeenth-century hagiography recounting the ordeals that Nisshin endured at the hands of the shogun Ashikaga Yoshinori, reads in part:

[On one occasion,] Master Nisshin was taken out into the prison yard in the fierce heat of the summer sun. Firewood was piled up, and he was made to cross through the flames. Forced to confront the fire, he was admonished, "If you think the pain will be hard to bear, then quickly say the name of Amida." Master Nisshin replied, "The heat is truly difficult to bear. However, when one commits the sin of slandering the Dharma, he will fall into the Avici Hell and be scorched in the flames of the Hell of Great Heat. Nothing could compare to the heat of those flames. How could I, because I shunned a brief spell of suffer- ing from this [relatively minor] heat, plant the seeds for long ages of torment?" And he chanted the daimoku in a loud voice.

(ktbs, 5: 559; trans. Stone 1999b, 394, slightly modified)

Stories of how medieval martyrs refused to chant the nenbutsu even under torture may have their literary antecedent in Nikko's account of the Atsuhara martyrs, who refused to chant the nenbutsu when tormented with hikime arrows by Yoritsuna.

A third theme of the Atsuhara story that appears to have been appropriated in later hagiographical accounts of Hokkeshu martyrs is that officials who harass Lotus Sutra devotees invariably meet with karmic retribution. According to the Nisshin Shonin tokugyo ki, for example, the shogun Yoshinori's assassination in 1441 was punishment for his imprisonment and abuse of the monk Nisshin (ktbs 5: 563-65; Stone 1999b, 395-97). This theme of karmic retribution befall- ing officials who harm the sutra's devotees may have its antecedent in Nikko's brief note recording the events of the Atsuhara persecution, where he observes,

Fourteen years later, Hei no Nyudo and Hangan, father and son, plotted rebel- lion and were destroyed. That both father and son [met their end in this way] was no ordinary matter. They had incurred in this life the punishment of the Lotus Sutra. (Honzon bun'yo cho, nsz 2: 116)

An early biography of Nikko even says that Yoritsuna and his son were executed in the very same garden where they had interrogated the Atsuhara peasants (Sanshi goden ..., nsz 2: 248-49).

Yoritsuna eventually eliminated his chief political rival, Adachi Yasumori, and rose to great heights of power, dominating the bakufu. But in 1293 he was accused of plotting to have his son supplant Hojo Sadatoki ... as regent, and he and his family were destroyed by Sadatoki's men. These events had no connection historically to the Atsuhara affair or to Nichiren's community. But from Nikko's perspective-perhaps influenced by Nichiren's own emphasis at the time of the persecution on "punishment in this lifetime"-the destruction of Yoritsuna and his son was a direct karmic consequence of their treatment of the Atsuhara prisoners. From then on, it would become a recurrent element in Hokkeshu historical accounts that powerful officials who torment Lotus Sutra devotees are ultimately destroyed by inexorable karmic law.

In concluding, we may note that the Atsuhara story not only seems to have influenced the writing of later accounts of Hokkeshu martyrs but also served as a model in its own right for the ideal attitude of Lotus devotees when faced with the hostility of those in power. Let us consider one example, which appears in the Musaka sho ... of the monk Nikkyo ... (1428-c. 1489) in Nikko's Fuji lineage. In discussing the topic of "Faith," Nikkyo writes,

In a place called Atsuhara in the Fuji district, twenty-three followers of the Hokkeshu were arrested and taken to the execution grounds. Among them was one woman. All were Nisshu's converts. Two had their heads cut off. Before others could be beheaded, the woman was stifling tears. The warriors guarding the prisoners laughed and said, "Women are worthless!" The woman replied, "It is not that I begrudge my life. But because I am a woman, I have not yet been beheaded, and thus my attainment of Buddhahood will be delayed. That is what I lament." Because of her plea, [the executioners] were moved, and the remaining twenty-one persons were pardoned, all due to this single woman's faith. (fsy 2: 265)

This passage represents a variation on the confrontation scene discussed above. It is not known whether or not there were any women among those arrested at Atsuhara. While the presence of women among the prisoners was by no means impossible, Nikkyo's account, written some two hundred years after the fact, is hardly a historically reliable document. The power of his narrative lies less in its factual accuracy than in its dramatic expression of a normative ideal: believers in the Lotus Sutra do not cower before worldly authority but rejoice in the opportunity to give up their lives for their faith, convinced that their achieve- ment of Buddhahood is thereby guaranteed. In Nikkyo's telling, the female gen- der of this particular devotee works to underscore her lack of power vis-à-vis her captors in worldly terms and to heighten in contrast the transcendent power of faith in the Lotus Sutra.

Conclusion

Source limitations restrict what can be known with certainty about the facts of the Atsuhara persecution. No official records survive, and those taken pris- oner, who were most closely affected, left no account of their actions or motives. Nichiren and Nikko's reports of the measures taken against their followers are unavoidably secondhand, and the only concrete reference to the disposition of the case, in Nikko's Honzon bun'yo cho, may also date from after the fact. None- theless, we can discern from Nikko and especially Nichiren's extant writings the immense importance of the affair, for Nichiren, as a renewed opportunity to gain a hearing from the authorities for his teaching, and for his followers, as a time when their individual faith and their unity as a community of devotees would be tested. The Atsuhara persecution also provided an occasion for Nichiren to distill and finalize his teachings on what it means to give one's life for the Lotus Sutra. Those teachings, along with representations of the confrontation between the Atsuhara prisoners and their jailors in Nikko's record and in later Hokkeshu narrative accounts, played a significant role in shaping the tradition's ideal of how a Lotus devotee should face opposition from those in power. The Atsu- hara story both expressed the spirit of "not begrudging bodily life" for the Lotus Sutra's sake and at the same time helped to establish it as an ideal of conduct for the later Nichiren tradition. Perhaps in the end it is as hagiography, rather than history, that its influence has most strongly endured.

Footnote

1. The designation junkyosha for those Hokkeshu figures who incurred persecution from the authorities in spreading Nichiren's teaching is historically rather recent and may derive from the use of this term in reference to Japanese Christian martyrs of the early modern or Tokugawa period (1603-1868). There have been at least two modern collected accounts of Nichiren Bud- dhist junkyosha as a category (Inoue 1931; Miyazaki 1966); the term junkyo (sacrificing one's life for the teaching) has also been applied specifically to the leaders of the medieval Nichiren fuju fuse ... movement (Naramoto and Takano 1972), and to Nichiren himself, in the title Nichiren: Junkyo no nyoraishi (Nichiren: Martyr and envoy of the Tathagata), a popular biogra- phy by Tamura Yoshiro (1975). The word junkyo appears only infrequently in Buddhist sources; shashin (discarding the body) is a much more common, though not precisely equivalent, term (Stone 2007).

2. Chief sources for the Atsuhara persecution include the 1279 Ryusenji moshijo, a petition of protest written by Nichiren, possibly with Nikko's collaboration (see note 5 below); several letters from Nichiren to disciples at the time of the persecution; Nikko's 1278 petition Shijukuin moshijo; and a brief historical note in Nikko's 1298 Honzon bun'yo cho, all of which are cited in this article. The most extensive modern scholarly study of the Atsuhara persecution was under- taken by Hori Nichiko (1867-1957), who was briefly the fifty-ninth chief abbot of Taisekiji, head temple of the Nichiren Shoshu denomination of Nichiren Buddhism. Hori's detailed analysis of primary documents related to the affair appears in his Atsuhara honan shi (Hori 1922), which he drew upon for his later biography of Nikko (Hori 1974). The social and political background of the Atsuhara affair has been insightfully analyzed in a study by Takagi Yutaka (1965, 193-220), to which Part I of this article is much indebted. For more popular accounts of the persecution, see Sato 1994, 189-211, and 2003, 300-309.

3. The family connections of Nikko's converts among local monks are not easy to determine. At Ryusenji in Atsuhara, Nichizen, like Nikko, is said to have had ties to the Yui family, although Nikko's record says only that he came from Kawai, where the Yui were based (nsz 2: 112). Tra- ditional accounts identify Nichiben as the eldest son of Jinshiro, one of the peasants killed in the persecution, though Hori Nichiko questions this (1974, 1: 136). Nonetheless, the distinction between warriors and cultivators was not sharply drawn, and it is quite possible that some of the monks converted by Nikko and his disciples came from among the local peasantry as well as bushi families.

4. Nichiren elsewhere suggests that these women played a role in his arrest and exile to Sado, by reporting to officials slanders made against him by leading monks in Kamakura (Shuju onfu- rumai gosho, Teihon 2: 962).

5. A draft, held by Nakayama Hokekyoji in Chiba, is written in two different hands. The larger portion, addressing doctrinal issues, is in Nichiren's handwriting, while a section detailing Gyochi's offenses and the events at Atsuhara is thought to have been written by Nikko (Hori Nichiko 1974, 1: 122-24; s.v., "Ryusenji moshijo," Ibun jiten, 1186-87). An alternative suggestion is that Nikko first drafted the petition together with Nisshu and Nichiben and then sent it to Nichiren at Minobu for his revisions (Hori 1922, 99; s.v. Nikko shisho ..., nj 304). I treat it here primarily as Nichiren's work. See also note 11 below.

6. Takagi (1965, 206-207) notes that, during the 1270s and 1280s, an increasing number of temple administrators and ritualists were bakufu appointees, a fact probably related to govern- ment sponsorship of prayer rites for the defeat of the Mongols.

7. This was not the first such moshijo that Nikko had authored. In 1268, he wrote the Jissoji daishu shujo ..., a petition on behalf of the monks of Jissoji protesting the improper conduct of another bakufu-appointed temple administrator (fsy 10: 305-16).

8. Followers of the exclusive nenbutsu movement of Honen (1133-1212) argued that the Lotus Sutra, along with all sutras other than the Pure Land sutras, pertained to the "path of the sages" (shodomon ...) and should be set aside as beyond the capacity of people in the Final Dharma age; Gyochi's reported statement that "the Lotus Sutra is not a teaching on which one can rely" would make sense from this standpoint. However, we do not know whether or not an exclusive Pure Land doctrine such as Honen's had spread at Ryusenji. Hori Nichiko (1974, 1: 124-25) sug- gests that the temple may have been affiliated with the Yokawa precinct of the great Tendai monastery on Mt. Hiei, but no details are available.

9. Hori Nichiko suggests (1974, 1: 134, 147) that the shrine event in question was an archery contest (yabusame), a boisterous occasion when it would have been relatively easy to harm someone unnoticed. He also suggests that, since Asama Shrine was undergoing repairs that year, the event would have been held not at the shrine itself but at a temporary site.

10. As Sato Hiroo notes (2003, 309), the phrase "those ignorant Atsuhara people" (kano Atsuwara no guchi no monodomo) has been criticized by some scholars as reflecting unconscious class bias on Nichiren's part. Iizuka Hiroshi (1981) may have been attempting to circumvent such criticisms when he suggests that this passage refers not to those who were arrested, but to others still remaining in Atsuhara who might have been vacillating in their faith. However, Iizuka does not explain why, were that the case, a letter containing instructions for how to encourage follow- ers in Atsuhara in the Fuji district would have been entrusted to the keeping of Shijo Yorimoto, who was living in Kamakura. The criticism to which Sato refers is itself anachronistic in assum- ing that doctrines of soteriological equality such as Nichiren's should have been understood as also entailing social equality-a correlation seldom drawn in premodern Japan. In all probabil- ity, the phrase represents Nichiren's blunt reference to the arrested peasants' lack of education, perhaps specifically to their limited knowledge of Buddhist teachings.

11. See note 5 above. The Ryusenji moshijo is one of three responses to charges that Nichiren wrote in the name of disciples being harassed by persons in authority. The others are the Shimo- yama goshosoku ... (Teihon no. 247) and the Yorimoto chinjo ... (no. 249), both written in 1277.

12. The Honzon bun'yo cho is dated Einin 6 (1298), more than twenty years after the persecu- tion. However, it appears to have been prepared for the seventeenth anniversary of Nichiren's death, and Nikko may have been keeping this record for some time before finalizing it (s.v. "Honzon bun'yo cho," nj 377).

13. Another edition of the text gives this name as "Yarokuro" (fsy 9: 258).

14. There is also a mandala honzon kept at Kitayama Honmonji inscribed by Nikko on the eighth day of the fourth month, Tokuji 3 (1308), and bearing the notation: "Jinshiro, a resident of Atsuhara village in the lower Fuji district of Suruga province became a follower of the Lotus Sutra; he was one of three people beheaded by Hei no Saemon-no-jo [Yoritsuna]. Fourteen years after cutting off the heads of Lotus devotees, Hei no Saemon Nyudo plotted rebellion and was destroyed, and his descendants perished without a trace" (Shiryo ruiju ... 1, fsy 8: 217; see also Fuji monkachu kenmon ... 1, 5: 152, and Shiryo ruiju 2, 9: 258).

15. Opinion differs as to the year of this letter, which is dated only "fifth month, third day." Teihon assigns it to 1278, before the Atsuhara persecution had properly begun. Ibun jiten sug- gests that 1280 is more likely (282c-d), while Takagi proposes 1279, right after the "son of Shiro" was wounded at the Asama Shrine festival (1965, 220, note 26). Jimyo-ama, also known as Kubo- no-ama, was Nikko's aunt.

16. Nichiren mentions this in a letter dated Koan 2 (1279), 11/25, to the wife of his follower Toki Jonin ..., thought to have been Iyo-bo's mother: "I am sending the monks known as Echigo-bo and Shimotsuke-bo to Iyo-dono. Please ask Lord Toki to take care of them for a while" ("Toki-dono nyobo-ama gozen gosho" ...[?]..., Teihon 2: 1711).

17. This is probably the same "shrine priest of Shinfuchi" (Shinfuchi no konushi ...) mentioned in Nikko's Honzon bun'yo cho as someone who received a mandala honzon inscribed by Nichiren (nsz 2: 117; Hori Nichiko 1974, 1: 158). Other letters from Nichiren to Tokimitsu dur- ing this time point to the latter's efforts in protecting followers in the area. One, written toward the end of 1279, contains the postscript, "I write in appreciation for all you have done in regard to the Atsuhara affair" ("Ueno-dono gohenji," Teihon 2: 1709).

18. Nichiren's criticism of Esoteric Buddhism does not mean that he rejected Esoteric elements. For Nichiren's appropriation of Esoteric hermeneutical assumptions and forms of practice, see Dolce 1999 and 2002.

19. Nichiren began to stress the Dharma "hidden in the depths of the origin teaching" from the time of his exile to Sado island. However, his reference to it as the "third doctrine" does not appear until a letter dated 10/1, thought to have been written between 1277 and 1279, right around the time of the Atsuhara persecution ("Toki Nyudo-dono gohenji," Teihon 2: 1589). The term "third doctrine" derives from three levels of comparison between the Lotus Sutra and other teachings; some differences of interpretation exist among Nichiren lineages (s.v. "daisan homon," nj 254b-c).

20. Similarly, in his 1278 letter to Buzen-ko, mentioned above, Nichiren places the local con- flicts at Jissoji and Shijukuin within the context of a larger drama in the struggle of true versus false in the realm of Buddhism. That the monks and administrators of these temples oppose his followers, he writes, is "a sign presaging the imminent decline of their false Dharma. 'When the roots are exposed, the branches wither; when the source dries up, the streams are exhausted' is surely no empty saying. The roots of the grave offense committed by the three great teachers, Kobo [Kukai], Jikaku [Ennin], and Chisho [Enchin] in slandering the Lotus Sutra have remained hidden for more than four hundred years, but once exposed, its branches will wither. This is the point of my present criticisms" ("Jissoji gosho," Teihon 2: 1435).

21. Revisionist scholarship has called into question the historicity, or at least the severity, of the typhoon said to have driven back the 1974 invading fleet (Kawazoe 1984, 161-74; Conlan 2001, 266-67). Kawazoe (1984, 170) notes this passage in the Ryusenji moshijo as a valuable contempo- raneous reference to the role of the "divine winds" in the failure of the first Mongol attack.

22. Other letters that Nichiren wrote around the same time mention Daishin-bo's death; thus it would appear that his fall from horseback was fatal. See Ibun jiten entries for "Daishin Ajari," "Daishin Ajari no bo," and "Daishin-bo," 685d-86d.

23. Today the Fuji lineage is chiefly represented by Nichiren Shoshu ..., with which the large lay Buddhist organization Soka Gakkai ... was formerly affiliated. Nichiren Shoshu's head temple, Taisekiji ..., is located not far from where the events occurred and houses a monument to the "three heroes of Atsuhara" (Atsuhara no sanresshi ...). (A Soka Gakkai song honoring the martyrs entitled Atsuhara no sanresshi was composed by "Yamamoto Shin'ichi" ...-, nom de plume of the organization's honorary president, Ikeda Daisaku ... . (See http://soka.j-pn.com/song1/atuhara.html, accessed 9/28/2013.) Taisekiji tradition also links the martyrs' sacrifice to its particular honzon or object of worship, a large calligraphic man- dala incised on a block of camphorwood, which Nichiren himself is said to have designated as the "great object of worship bestowed upon all of Jambudvipa [that is, the world]" (ichienbudai soyo no daigohonzon -...). Seeing that even unlettered peasants were willing to give their lives for the sake of the Lotus Sutra, Nichiren is said to have inscribed this mandala on the twelfth day of the tenth month, 1279, in fulfillment of his ultimate purpose (Matsumoto 1968, 400; Kawai 1978, 126-37). This tradition of the Taisekiji mandala, however, is specific to Nichiren Shoshu and not shared by other schools of Nichiren Buddhism.

24. These accounts appear to have drawn for literary inspiration on elements in Nichiren's autobiographical writings such as the Shuju onfurumai gosho (Teihon no. 176) and "Ueno-dono gohenji" (no. 330). For example, in an editorial note to Nissei's account, Hori Nichiko says that the dispatch of several hundred warriors to arrest the peasants is "a groundless error" (fsy 5: 135, headnote); however, although historically indeed quite dubious, this detail may rather be seen as a deliberate literary shaping, for it replicates Nichiren's account of his own arrest in 1271 (Shuju onfurumai gosho, Teihon 2: 963). The "pelting with tiles and rocks" no doubt similarly derives from the story of Bodhisattva Never Despising (Sadaparibhuta, Jofukyo) in the Lotus Sutra, to whose tribulations Nichiren frequently likened his own (t 9. 50c; Hurvitz 1976, 281).

25. Nichiren's criticisms of this widespread practice have been summed up in the phrase "nenbutsu leads to the Avici Hell" (nenbutsu mugen ...; s.v. "shika kakugen" [...], nj, esp. 144a-c; see also Stone 2013).

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kbts Kokubun toho bukkyo sosho .... Series 1, vol. 5. Ed. Washio Junkyo .... Tokyo: Toho Shoin, 1925.

nj Nichirenshu jiten .... Ed. Nichirenshu Jiten Kanko Iinkai ... . Tokyo: Nichirenshu Shumuin, 1981.

nsz Nichirenshu shugaku zensho ... 23 vols. Ed. Rissho Daigaku Nichiren Kyogaku Kenkyujo ... . Tokyo: Sankibo Busshorin, 1968-1978.

t Taisho shinshu daizokyo ... . 85 vols. Takakusu Junjiro ... and Watanabe Kaigyoku ..., eds. Tokyo: Taisho Issaikyo Kankokai, 1924-1932.

Teihon Showa teihon Nichiren Shonin ibun .... 4 vols. Ed. Rissho Daigaku Nichiren Kyogaku Kenkyujo ... . Minobu-cho, Yamanashi: Minobusan Kuonji, 1952-1959; revised 1988.

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