A REVIEW ON SWARNAPRASHANA - GOLD LICKING, A CHILD IMMUNITY ENHANCER THERAPY

Abstract

The immunity is the state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. In Ayurveda, the superior vital essence of all bodily tissues is called Ojas which is responsible for the defense of human body against diseases and infirmity. Ayurvedic concept of Genetics refers that if parent's genetic make up is healthy and in equilibrium, then it would provide complete health and immunity to their offspring. In Ayurvedic literature processed gold (metal) is used both externally and internally for therapeutic purposes. Ayurveda pediatrics refers various rituals or Sanskara like Swarnaprashana is mentioned for the recognition of milestones, and to extend the required nutrition and immunity during the process of growth and development in the children. These rituals improve the immunity and intelligence. Acharya Kashyapa opines that, by feeding the gold for one month, the child is not attacked by any disease. The author made an in depth literary review, to explore the role of Swarnaprashana therapy said for child immunity enhancing in Ayurveda.

Headnote

ABSTRACT

The immunity is the state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. In Ayurveda, the superior vital essence of all bodily tissues is called "Ojas" which is responsible for the defense of human body against diseases and infirmity. Ayurvedic concept of Genetics refers that if parent's genetic make up is healthy and in equilibrium, then it would provide complete health and immunity to their offspring. In Ayurvedic literature processed gold (metal) is used both externally and internally for therapeutic purposes. Ayurveda pediatrics refers various rituals or Sanskara like Swarnaprashana is mentioned for the recognition of milestones and to extend the required nutrition and immunity during the process of growth and development in the children. These rituals improve the immunity and intelligence. Acharya Kashyapa opines that, by feeding the gold for one month, the child is not attacked by any disease. This classical description implicates that ingestion of Swarna modulates immune mechanism, so that morbidity is reduced. Author made an in depth literary review to explore the role of Swarnaprashana therapy said for child immunity enhancing in Ayurveda.

KEYWORDS: Ojas, Shukra, Artava, Sanskara, Swarnaprashana

INTRODUCTION

The concept of immunity has intrigued mankind for thousands of years. The prehistoric view of disease was that it was caused by supernatural forces, and that illness was a form of theurgic punishment for "bad deeds" or "evil thoughts" visited upon the soul by the gods or by one's enemies (Lindquester, Gary J. 2006).

The immunity is the state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. It is the capability of the body to resist harmful microbes from entering it. The modern word "immunity" derives from the Latin immunis, meaning exemption from military service, tax payments or other public services. The first written descriptions of the concept of immunity may have been made by the Athenian Thucydides who, in 430 BC, described that when the plague hit Athens "the sick and the dying were tended by the pitying care of those who had recovered, because they knew the course of the disease and were themselves free from apprehensions. For no one was ever attacked a second time, or not with a fatal result" (Gherardi E).

Immunity - A Review

Immunity involves both specific and nonspecific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide range of pathogens irrespective of antigenic specificity. Other components of the immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity.

Immune System:

The immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Pathogens can rapidly evolve and adapt, and thereby avoid detection and neutralization by the immune system, however, multiple defense mechanisms have also evolved to recognize and neutralize pathogens. Even simple unicellular organisms such as bacteria possess a rudimentary immune system, in the form of enzymes that protect against bacteriophage infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient eukaryotes and remain in their modern descendants, such as plants and insects. These mechanisms include phagocytosis, antimicrobial peptides called defensins, and the complement system. Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, (Beck, Gregory; Gail S. Habicht, 1996). including the ability to adapt over time to recognize specific pathogens more efficiently. Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer (Lisa M. Coussens and Zena Werb, 2001) Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections.

In humans, immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS, or the use of immunosuppressive medication. In contrast, autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system (K.J. O'Byrne and A.G. Dalgleish, 2010).

Innate immunity or nonspecific immunity is the natural resistances with which a person is born. It provides resistances through several physical, chemical and cellular approaches (Grasso P et al., 2011). The innate immune system, also known as non-specific immune system and first line of defense, comprises the cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms in a non-specific manner. This means that the cells of the innate system recognize and respond to pathogens in a generic way, but unlike the adaptive immune system (which is only found in vertebrates), it does not confer long-lasting or protective immunity to the host (Alberts, Bruce, et al., 2002). Innate immune systems provide immediate defense against infection, and are found in all classes of plant and animal life.

The major functions of the vertebrate innate immune system include:

* Recruiting immune cells to sites of infection, through the production of chemical factors, including specialized chemical mediators, called cytokines.

* Activation of the complement cascade to identify bacteria, activate cells and to promote clearance of dead cells or antibody complexes.

* The identification and removal of foreign substances present in organs, tissues, the blood and lymph, by specialised white blood cells.

* Activation of the adaptive immune system through a process known as antigen presentation.

* Acting as a physical and chemical barrier to infectious agents (Janeway Charles et al., 2001).

Adaptive immunity:

The adaptive immune system, also known as the acquired immune system or, more rarely, as the specific immune system, is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate or prevent pathogen growth. One of the two main immunity strategies found in vertebrates (the other being innate immunity), acquired immunity creates immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen, leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination. It is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how the immunity was introduced. Naturally acquired immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent, when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificially acquired immunity develops only through deliberate actions such as vaccination.

Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains antigen. A vaccine stimulates a primary response against the antigen without causing symptoms of the disease (Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook). Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be further subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced in the host or passively transferred from an immune host. Passive immunity is acquired through transfer of antibodies or activated T-cells from an immune host, and is short lived-usually lasting only a few months-whereas active immunity is induced in the host itself by antigen and lasts much longer, sometimes lifelong. The diagram below summarizes these divisions of immunity (Janeway Charles, et al., 2001).

Passive immunity:

Passive immunity is the transfer of active immunity, in the form of readymade antibodies, from one individual to another. Passive immunity can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are transferred to the fetus through the placenta, and can also be induced artificially, when high levels of human (or horse) antibodies specific for a pathogen or toxin are transferred to non-immune individuals. Passive immunization is used when there is a high risk of infection and insufficient time for the body to develop its own immune response, or to reduce the symptoms of ongoing or immunosuppressive diseases (Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook). Passive immunity provides immediate protection, but the body does not develop memory, therefore the patient is at risk of being infected by the same pathogen later (Janeway Charles et al., 2001).

It is further divided into two groups:-

* Naturally acquired passive immunity

* Artificially acquired passive immunity

* Naturally acquired passive immunity: Maternal passive immunity is a type of naturally acquired passive immunity, and refers to antibody-mediated immunity conveyed to a fetus by its mother during pregnancy. Maternal antibodies (MatAb) are passed through the placenta to the fetus by an FcRn receptor on placental cells. This occurs around the third month of gestation. Immunoglobulin G is the only antibody isotype that can pass through the placenta (Coico, R, et al., 2003). Immunization is often required shortly following birth to prevent diseases such as tuberculosis, hepatitis B, polio, and pertusis, however, maternal antibodies can inhibit the induction of protective vaccine responses throughout the first year of life. This effect is usually overcome by secondary responses to booster immunization (Lambert, et al., 2005). Passive immunity is also provided through the transfer of IgA antibodies found in breast milk that are transferred to the gut of the infant, protecting against bacterial infections, until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies (Janeway Charles et al., 2001).

* Artificially acquired passive immunity: Artificially acquired passive immunity is a short-term immunization achieved by the transfer of antibodies, which can be administered in several forms; as human or animal blood plasma or serum, as pooled human immunoglobulin for intravenous (IVIG) or intramuscular (IG) use, as hightiter human IVIG or IG from immunized donors or from donors recovering from the disease, and as monoclonal antibodies (MAb). Passive transfer is used prophylactically in the case of immunodeficiency diseases, such as hypogammaglobulinemia (Keller, et al., 2000). It is also used in the treatment of several types of acute infection, and to treat poisoning (Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook).

Immunity derived from passive immunization lasts for only a short period of time, and there is also a potential risk for hypersensitivity reactions, and serum sickness, especially from gamma globulin of non-human origin. Passive immunity provides immediate protection, but the body does not develop memory, therefore the patient is at risk of being infected by the same pathogen later. (Janeway Charles et al., 2001).

Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. (MetchnikoffElie, 1905) Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigenantibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded to the founder of cellular immunology (MetchnikoffElie, 1905).

Child Immunity

The immune system, which is made up of special cells, proteins, tissues, and organs, defends people against germs and microorganisms every day. In most cases, the immune system does a great job of keeping people healthy and preventing infections. But sometimes problems with the immune system can lead to illness and infection.

During the last three months of pregnancy, antibodies from the mother are passed to her unborn baby through the placenta. This type of immunity is called passive immunity because the baby has been given antibodies rather than making them itself. Antibodies are special proteins that the immune system produces to help protect the body against bacteria and viruses.

The amount and type of antibodies passed to the baby depends on the mother's immunity. For example, if the mother has had chickenpox, she will have developed immunity against the condition and some of the chickenpox antibodies will be passed to the baby. However, if the mother has not had chickenpox, the baby will not be protected.

Immunity in newborn babies is only temporary and starts to decrease after the first few weeks or months. Breast milk also contains antibodies, which means that babies who are breastfed have passive immunity for longer. The thick, yellowish milk (colostrum) that is produced for the first few days following birth is particularly rich in antibodies. Premature babies are at higher risk of developing an illness because their immune systems are not as strong and they have not had as many antibodies passed to them. As newborn immunity is only temporary, it is important to begin childhood immunizations when a baby is two months old. This applies to babies who are either premature or full-term (http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/939).

The newborn's immune system grows fast from a small size at birth by exposure primarily to the intestinal microflora normally obtained from the mother at and after birth. While building up its immune system, the infant is supported by the transplacental IgG antibodies, which also contain anti-idiotypic antibodies, possibly also actively priming the offspring. The second mode of transfer of immunity occurs via the milk. Numerous major protective components, including secretory IgA (SIgA) antibodies and lactoferrin, are present. The breastfed infant is better protected against numerous common infections than the nonbreastfed. Breastfeeding also seems to actively stimulate the infant's immune system by antiidiotypes, uptake of milk lymphocytes, cytokines, etc. Therefore, the breastfed child continues to be better protected against various infections for some years. Vaccine responses are also often enhanced in breastfed infants. Long-lasting protection against certain immunological diseases such as allergies and celiac disease is also noted (Ann N Y, 2003).

Immunity and Child Immunity - An Ayurveda Overview

The concept of immunity is of tremendous importance in the daily wellness of human beings; for prevention and recovery from diseases. Synonyms for Immunity which appears in Ayurvedic scriptures are: Sleshma, Bala, Ojas. The term "Bala' is defined by Sushruta, in detail. Sushruta describes - "Bala imparts firm integrity to the muscles, improves the voice and complexion, and helps the person to perform his natural functions (including the external and inner function) normally" (Shastri Ambika Datta, 2004).

Further this Bala is classified into three groups:-

a. Sahaja (Innate - which body possess at the time of birth)

b. Kalaja (Body acquires immunity strength according to seasons, age and periodic factors)

c. Yuktikrita (Adoptive) (Shastri Kashinatha et al., 2004)

a. Sahaja bala (innate):- The constitutional strength present since birth (Shastri Kashinatha et al., 2005). It depends on the natural healthiness of shukra (sperms) and artava (ovum) at the time of concieving. Ayurvedic concept of Genetics refers that if parent's genetic make up is healthy and equilibrium in health status then it will provide complete health and immunity to the children. On other hand if the genetic makeup of parents is susceptible to certain diseases, those diseases may be carried over into the next generation (Shastri Kashinatha et al., 2005). This concept indicates congenital abnormalities which occur due to abnormal changes at genes or chromosomal levels.

b. Kalaja bala (according to time, season, and age):- Encompassing the time of day, season, age etc. enhancing immunity. Strength is assumed to be greater in the early morning, spring, and young age than in evening, summers and old age (Shastri Kashinatha et al., 2005).

c. Yuktikrita bala (acquired):- Ayurveda focuses on following plans for acquiring bala or enhancing immunity:

* Proper and suitable nutritious diet.

* Following exercise with proper method.

* Using different beneficial rejuvenator recipes. (Shastri Kashinatha et al., 2005).

Child Immunity Enhancing Therapies and Ayurveda

Acharyas Sushruta, Vagbhata & Kasyapa describe a special formulation by the name of "Lehana" - which enhances immunity and minimizes infection episodes, from the childhood period.

Lehana Karma (Action of Licking Therapy): Lehana is purposes for:

1. To enhances growth & development by providing sufficient nutrition.

2. Promote health, complexion and strength (immunity).

3. Protect from various infections along with improving intellect and speech (delayed milestone).

Indication of Lehana -

Children receiving inadequate amount of breast milk due to pregnancy of mother, children having increased demand of food, children passing less amount of urine and stool, children: very lean & thin without any organic problems.

Contraindications of Lehana -

Children having improper digestion, lethargic, passing excessive amounts of urine & stool, suffering from various disorders like eye, ENT disorders (shiroroga), fever, diarrhea, edema, jaundice, anemia, cardiac problems, rectal disorder, excessive vomiting & nausea, abdominal discomforts, amaroga (disorders due to toxic residue that is leftbehind as a byproduct of poor digestion) (Tiwari PV, 2002; Pandit Hemaraj Sharma et al., 2006).

Immunity Enhancing Therapies for Mother

Dushprajata literally means women with bad obstetrical history or difficult labor. While describing the indications of Lehana karma in pediatric population, Acharya Kashyapa explains that, babies born to Dushprajata mothers should be administered with Lehan (Swarna Lehana). This term broadly includes to all mothers who present with prolonged labor, either delivering prematurely or post term, abnormal presentation, along with associated complications like preeclampsia, etc. In short, all conditions which are not normal in an obstetric case can be considered as Dushprajata (Tiwari PV, 2002; Pandit Hemaraj Sharma et al., 2006).

Now, it is a matter of logical reasoning that why ancient scholars mentioned to give Lehana to babies born to these dushprajata mothers. Now days, with medical knowledge ever expanding and developing, in order to reduce morbidity and mortality, scheduled caesarean section is performed on these dushprajata mothers. It is a matter of interest to investigate regarding differences between babies born to normal mother and dushprajata mothers.

Studies:

A study the effects of the mode of delivery on oxidative anti-oxidative balance of mothers and infants reveals that both the mothers and neonates in scheduled caesarean section group were exposed to higher oxidative stress as compared to those in normal spontaneous vaginal deliveries patient group. It was further reported that the antioxidant mechanisms in babies are insufficient to cope with this stress during caesarean section (Mutlu B et al., 2011).

Swarnaprashana (Gold Licking)

Gold has been always considered to possess potential therapeutic efficacy. The use of gold in medicinal preparation can be traced back for thousands of years and it has been mentioned in medical literature since ancient times (Zhao Huaizhi, et al., 2001). Gold is one of the most non-reactive metals known to mankind till date. In this context for making the Swarna (Gold) therapeutically useful, there are mainly two requisites. First is reduction in particle size of the element. Unless the particle size is not reduced, it will not be absorbed or metabolized and will not impart any of the mentioned therapeutic effects. The second most important criteria is existence of metal in human body in ionic form. Non reactive substances will not impart any effect and will lie inert (Mahapatra et al., 2013). In Ayurvedic literature gold is used both externally and internally for therapeutic purposes. Externally Swarna dharana (wearing golden ornaments) is considered pious and mainly used in grahabadha. Internally it is either in the form of rubbed gold (Vidhrisya dhoute drishadi), incinerated gold or Swarna Bhasma, Swarna Lavana (Shastri Kashinath, 2000) or swarna vark (Mostly used in Unani system of medicine) (Bajaj S et al., 1999).

Classical procedure of Swarna Lehana

In Ayurveda pediatrics, various rituals or Sanskara like Swarnaprashana is mentioned for the recognition of milestones and to extend the required nutrition and immunity during the process of growth and development in the children. These rituals improve the immunity and intelligence. (Keshipedhi Sanadhya Rani and Yadav Babita, 2011)

The procedure to Swarna Lehana, is described in Kashyapa Samhita in much detail. It is mentioned that, keeping face towards east, gold should be rubbed on a washed stone with a little quantity of water. Then it should be churned with Honey and Ghrita and should be given to the child for licking. Kashyapa opines that feeding of gold increases intellect, digestive and metabolic power, strength, gives long life; is auspicious, virtuous, aphrodisiac, increases complexion and eliminates the evil effects of grahas. Further it has been mentioned that by feeding the gold for one month, the child becomes extremely intelligent and is not attacked by the diseases and by using for six months, is able to retain what-so-ever he/she hears (Tiwari PV, 2002; Pandit Hemaraj Sharma et al., 2006). In the Scriptures, it is stated to perform this Samskara prior to cutting offthe navel string of the newly born child from that of its mother. For intellectual development, strength and long life of the newly born child, who has experienced this divine world for the first time, a pious mixture of honey. Sugar and Ghee is placed on the tongue of the child with a golden stick and at that time special Vedic Mantra is chanted. This Samskara is performed with special Mantras and rituals. After sanctifying with Mantras the mixture of two drops of Ghee and six drops of honey (Shahad), the mixture is placed on the tongue of the child and thereafter the father performs the ritual of Yagna. Thereafter the father whispers in the leftear of the child- our secret name is Ved. Thereafter the father cuts the navel string of the child and blesses him (Swami Shri Dharmnandan dasji, 2010). The basic concept of this Swarnaprashana (gold licking) is used only once in Jatakarma Samskara performed just after birth. Sushrut (Shastri Ambika Datta, 2005) and Vagbhata (Shastri Kashinath, et al., 1994) but have further prescribed four gold preparations for prolonged use. In Kashyapa samhita, while describing the benefits of Swarna Lehan, Acharya Kashyapa opines that, by feeding the gold for one month, the child is not attacked by any disease. This classical description implicates that ingestion of Swarna modulates immune mechanism, so that morbidity is reduced (Tiwari PV, 2002; Pandit Hemaraj Sharma et al., 2006).

Sushruta and Vagbhat have prescribed gold along with various drugs to the newborn child immediately after birth. Sushruta has advised its use after emesis of liquor-amnii, but before massage (Shastri Ambika Datta, 2005) and bath while Vagbhata has indicated it after massage and bath but before emesis The drugs prescribed by Vagbhata is advised to be given through spoon made of gold (Shastri Kashinath, et al., 1994). The basic concept of this gold licking is entirely different as it is used only once in Jatakarma Samskara performed just after birth. Sushruta (Shastri Ambika Datta, 2005) and Vagbhata have further prescribed four gold preparations for prolonged use. (Shastri Kashinath, et al., 1994)

CONCLUSION

Passive immunity is the transfer of active immunity, in the form of readymade antibodies, from one individual to another. Passive immunity can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are transferred to the fetus through the placenta. During the last three months of pregnancy, antibodies from the mother are passed to her unborn baby through the placenta. This type of immunity is called passive immunity because the baby has been given antibodies rather than making them itself. Antibodies are special proteins that the immune system produces to help protect the body against bacteria and viruses. Ayurvedic concept of Genetics refers that if parent's genetic make up is healthy and equilibrium in health status then it will provide complete health and immunity to the children.

Gold has been always considered to possess potential therapeutic efficacy. The use of gold in medicinal preparation can be traced back for thousands of years and it has been mentioned in medical literature since ancient times. In Ayurveda pediatrics, various rituals or Samskara like Swarnaprashana is mentioned for the recognition of milestones and to extend the required nutrition and immunity during the process of growth and development in the children. These rituals improve the immunity and intelligence.

Acharya Sushruta, Vagbhata, Kasyapa describe a special formulation by the name of "Lehana", for this purpose which enhances immunity and thus minimizes infection episodes, from the childhood period. The basic concept of this Swarnaprashana (gold licking) is used only once in Jatakarma Samskara performed just after birth. Sushrut and Vagbhat have further prescribed four gold preparations for prolonged use. Kashyap samhita, while describing the benefits of Swarna Lehan, Acharya Kashyap opines that, by feeding the gold for one month, the child is not attacked by any disease. This classical description implicates that ingestion of Swarna modulates immune mechanism, so that morbidity is reduced.

Sidebar

Cite this article:

Sharma Chakrapany (2013), A REVIEW ON SWARNAPRASHANAA - GOLD LICKING, A CHILD IMMUNITY ENHANCER THERAPY, Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume 2(11): 752-761

References

REFERENCES

Alberts, Bruce; Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, and Peter Walters (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell; Fourth Edition. New York and London: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.

Ann N Y (2003), The transfer of immunity from mother to child, Acad Sci.; 987:199-206

Bajaj S, Ahmad I, Fatima M, Raisuddin S, Vohora SB. (1999) Immunomodulatory activity of a unani gold preparation used in Indain system of medicine. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol.; 21(1):151-61

Beck, Gregory; Gail S. Habicht (November 1996). "Immunity and the Invertebrates" (PDF). Scientific American 275 (5): 60-66. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1196-60. Retrieved 19 July 2013.

Coico, R., Sunshine, G., and Benjamin, E. (2003). "Immunology: A Short Course." Pg. 48.

Gherardi E. The Concept of Immunity. History and Applications. Immunology Course Medical School, University of Pavia

Grasso, P.; Gangolli, S.; Gaunt, Ian (2002). Essentials of Pathology for Toxicologists. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0- 415-25795-4. "Our immune system is therefore crucial to our survival. It is currently divided into two categories which are innate (non-specific) immunity and acquired (specific) immunity."

http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/939.aspx?Catego ryID=62&SubCategoryID=63, retrieved on 24th July 2013

Janeway C.A., Travers, P., Walport, M., Shlomchik, M.J. (2005). Immunobiology. (6th ed.). Garland Science. ISBN 0-443-07310-4.

Janeway, Charles; Paul Travers, Mark Walport, and Mark Shlomchik (2001). Immunobiology; Fifth Edition. New York and London: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-4101-6..

K.J. O'Byrne and A.G. Dalgleish (2001) "Chronic Immune Activation and Inflammation as the Cause of Malignancy", British Journal of Cancer, vol. 85, no. 4, pages 473-483

Keller, Margaret A. and E. Richard Stiehm (2000) Passive Immunity in Prevention and Treatment of Infectious Diseases Clinical Microbiology Reviews, Vol. 13, No. 4; p. 602-614,

Keshipedhi Sanadhya Rani and Yadav Babita, (2011) Restoration of Health through prophylactic and interventional dietetics, International Research Journal of Ayurveda and Pharmacy, 2 (6): 1622-1624

Lambert, Paul-Henri, Margaret Liu and Claire- Anne Siegrist (2005) Can successful vaccines teach us how to induce efficient protective immune responses? (Full text-html) Nature Medicine 11, S54-S62

Lindquester, Gary J. (2006) Introduction to the History of disease. Disease and Immunity, Rhodes College.

Lisa M. Coussens and Zena Werb (2013) "Inflammatory Cells and Cancer, Journal of Experimental Medicine, March 19, 2001, vol. 193, no. 6, pp F23-26.

Mahapatra A, Ojha N, A. Kumar, (2013) Rationality of Swarnaprashana in Pediatrics Practice, International Journal Of Ayurvedic And Herbal Medicine 3:3; 1191:12003, pp 1193-94

Metchnikoff, Elie; Translated by F.G. Binnie. (1905). Immunity in Infective Diseases (Full Text Version: Google Books). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 6802-5143

Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook: USC School of Medicine

Mutlu B, Aksoy N, Cakir H, Celik H, Erel O. (2011) The effects of the mode of delivery on oxidative-antioxidative balance. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med.; Nov; 24(11):1367-70. doi: 10.3109/14767058.2010.548883.

Pandit Hemraj Sharma, Satyapala Bhisagacharya (2006) Kasyapa Samhita. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan; su. p-4

Shastri Ambika datta (2005) Susruta Samhita (Ayurveda Tattva Sandipika Hindi commentary), Part-I. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan; Sutrasthana. 15/25, Sharirasthana.

Shastri Kashinath (2000) Rasatarangini Of Sadanandsharmavirchit. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 11th edition (Reprint), Panchadash Tarang. pp 368

Shastri Kashinath, Tripathi I, Tripathi S (1994) Ashtang Hridaya, Vidvanamanoranjini Hindi. Uttaratantra, Chapter 1. Varanasi: Krishnadas Academy.

Shastri Kashinatha, Gorakha Natha Chaturvedi (2005) Charaka Samhita (Vidyotini Hindi commentary), Varanasi: Chaukhambha Bharati Academy, Part-I and Part-II (Reprint year: 2006), Su. 11/36, p- 228; Su. 3/17, p 865; Su. 6/8, p 138

Swami Shri Dharmnandan dasji, (2010) Sixteen Samskaras, Shree Narnarayandev Sahitya Series No -37, Mahanat Sadguru Purani Publication, Shree Swaminarayan mandir - Bhuj, pp 17- 24

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1908) Nobelprize.org Accessed 20 July 2013

Tiwari P V, (2002), Kashyap Samhita, 1st Edition , New Delhi, Chowkhambha Vishvabharati, p7

Zhao Huaizhi, Ning Yuantao. (2001) China's ancient gold drugs. Gold Bulletin, Volume 34, Issue 1, pp 24-29

Source of Support: Nil Conflict of Interest: None Declared